Chapter 1Introduction
1.1Due to climate change, natural disasters are occurring across the world with greater frequency and severity. Bushfires and floods are expected to become more frequent, and tropical cyclones are projected to decrease in number but increase in intensity. Concurrent and consecutive disaster events are also expected to occur more often, increasing pressure on the resilience of communities.
1.2These changes in extreme climate variability are compelling governments to reassess their approaches to disaster preparedness, response and recovery to ensure the nation’s capability and capacity to respond is not only sufficient, but also sustainable.
1.3Australian communities have faced an unprecedented number of natural disaster events in the last several years. Natural disasters not only cause significant damage to infrastructure and property creating challenges for communities, governments and industry, but they also have a notable impact on the mental health of those that respond to and live through these disasters.
1.4Some individuals and families lose everything in a natural disaster, and whilst communities may have enough resilience to rebuild after a disaster, the risk of experiencing back-to-back disasters is ever more plausible—stretching thin the resources and capabilities of governments to respond, as well as compounding the vulnerability of communities.
1.5During the course of this inquiry, the committee heard personal accounts from communities across Australia recounting the acts of bravery, resilience and challenges they faced when disasters hit. The resourcefulness and tenacity of these communities is admirable, but it is apparent to the committee that more can be done to prepare and support communities to overcome these challenges.
1.6The evidence received by the committee indicated that Australia’s federal system of governance, where the roles and responsibilities for emergency management are split between three levels of government, creates a unique set of challenges revolving around coordination, communication and cooperation that must be overcome to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of Australia’s disaster response arrangements.
1.7The Australian Government plays an essential role in ensuring that the national emergency response arrangements are responsive to the needs of all Australians and that they are operating as effectively as possible.
1.8Local communities, and the councils that represent them, must be empowered and supported to drive the development of emergency management plans that reflect the distinctive needs of their environments and communities.
1.9State emergency service agencies act as the first responders who protect the life, property and environments of the communities they serve. This workforce, largely volunteer-based, must be supported to ensure their levels of resourcing and training are maintained and sustainable in the face of increased demand for their services.
1.10The same can be said for the valuable role played by the not-for-profit and community services sector who are often the ones picking up the pieces after a disaster impacts a community.
1.11The role of volunteers in underpinning Australia’s disaster resilience cannot be understated. Volunteers contribute across all stages of disaster prevention, preparedness, and recovery by not only bolstering the number of boots on the ground, but also by fostering and nurturing important social capital and connections. However, the evidence indicates that the number of people volunteering in Australia has been declining over the past few years, at times when we need them most.
1.12Additionally, questions have been raised about the sustainability of calling on the Australian Defence Force (ADF) to assist states and territories in responding to disasters given that these events are occurring much more frequently. The ADF’s workforce and capabilities must be focused on their primary responsibility of the protection of Australia’s national security and the defence of Australia. Whilst there is no doubt about the value of the capabilities and capacity of our women and men in uniform to assist communities in emergencies, the Australian Government must ensure that these capabilities are drawn upon only in the most extreme situations—as a force of last resort.
1.13As such, funding models must be designed in a way that is flexible and adequately funds each level of government and each sector involved in disaster preparedness, response and recovery to enable them to fulfil their roles and responsibilities. The Australian Government must also be creative in implementing incentives and solutions that recognise, retain and recruit volunteers, encouraging more people to step up and help their fellow Australians in times of need.
1.14This report explores these issues, highlighting the areas identified in the evidence as requiring improvement, and outlines a number of proposals to strengthen Australia’s emergency response arrangements and improve Australia’s disaster resilience.
Climate change and natural disasters
1.15The State of the Climate 2022 report found that Australia’s climate has warmed by an average of approximately 1.47 degrees Celsius since national records began in 1910 and sea surface temperatures have increased by an average of 1.05 degrees Celsius since 1900. This has led to an increase in the frequency of extreme heat events over land and sea.
1.16According to the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), ‘Australia is experiencing an increase in the frequency, severity, and impact of climate change-influenced disasters’. There have been over 200 disaster events since 2019, with 1 684 disaster declarations across 434 local government areas (LGAs). In 2022, half of Australia’s LGAs were subject to a disaster declaration, with 70 per cent of Australians living in an LGA that was impacted by a disaster event.
1.17Similarly, research by KPMG found that, in 2022, 18 million Australians were living in an LGA impacted by at least one natural disaster and that in some cases, LGAs had been impacted by multiple events over the past three years. KPMG also found that the number of people living in an impacted area was more than double the average for the past decade.
1.18However, each state and territory in Australia experiences weather events differently as each has its own climate, geography and environment which influences the type, frequency, intensity and severity of natural disasters. As such, the resourcing and arrangements in place to mitigate and respond to weather events also varies.
1.19The State of the Climate 2022 report warned that in the coming decades, Australia is projected to experience:
continued increases in air temperatures, more heat extremes and fewer cold extremes;
continued decreases, on average, in cool season rainfall across many regions of southern and eastern Australia, which will likely lead to more time in drought, but with ongoing climate variability that will give rise to short-duration heavy rainfall events at a range of timescales;
continued increases in the number of dangerous fire weather days and a longer fire season for southern and eastern Australia;
further sea level rise and continued warming and acidification of the oceans around Australia;
increased and longer-lasting marine heatwaves that will affect marine environments, such as kelp forests, and increase the likelihood of more frequent and severe bleaching events in coral reefs around Australia;
fewer tropical cyclones, but a greater proportion is projected to be of high intensity, with large variations from year to year; and
reduced average snow depth in alpine regions, but with variations from year to year.
1.20The cost burden of natural disasters is also significant and predicted to increase. According to the Department of Home Affairs (Home Affairs):
The cost of natural disasters in Australia is estimated to increase from an average of $18.2 billion in 2016 to $73 billion per annum by 2060, even under a low emissions scenario.
1.21The Australian Government’s Disaster Recovery Funding Arrangements (DRFA) paid $3.1 billion in funding to states and territories between 1 June 2018 and 30 June 2022 to assist them in responding to natural disasters. In October 2022, the Australian National Audit Office (ANAO) projected that DRFA payments to the states between 2022–23 to 2025–26 would reach $6.4 billion.
1.22Furthermore, KPMG research found that the value of insured losses caused by natural disasters in 2022 was at a record high of almost $7 billion.
1.23There is also a significant human impact of the increased frequency and severity of natural disasters, as described by the Department of Health and Aged Care:
… natural disasters (and extreme weather) give rise to increased rates of stress, depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), alcohol and substance abuse, aggression and violence, suicide, and exacerbation of other underlying mental health problems. Long-term mental health impacts are also linked to the practical challenges of rebuilding after a natural disaster, including experiences relating to housing, insurance and obtaining financial assistance.
Conduct of the inquiry
1.24The Senate Select Committee on Australia’s Disaster Resilience (the committee) was established by resolution of the Senate on 30November2022 to inquire into Australia’s preparedness, response and recovery workforce models, as well as to consider alternative models for disaster response and recovery.
1.25The inquiry’s terms of reference include:
(a)current preparedness, response and recovery workforce models, including:
(i)the role of the Australian Defence Force in responding to domestic natural disasters,
(ii)the impact of more frequent and more intense natural disasters, due to climate change, on the ongoing capacity and capability of the Australian Defence Force,
(iii)the impact on the Australian Defence Force in responding to domestic natural disasters, and
(iv)the role of Australian civil and volunteer groups, not-for-profit organisations and state-based services in preparing for, responding to and recovering from natural disasters, and the impact of more frequent and more intense natural disasters on their ongoing capacity and capability;
(b)consideration of alternative models, including:
(i)repurposing or adapting existing Australian civil and volunteer groups, not-for-profit organisations and state-based services, and
(ii)overseas models and best practice;
(c)consideration of the practical, legislative, and administrative arrangements that would be required to support improving Australia’s resilience and response to natural disasters; and
(d)any related matters.
1.26Details of the inquiry were made available on the committee’s website. The committee contacted a number of agencies, organisations and individuals inviting written submissions by 20 February 2023. However, given the nature of the inquiry and the level of community interest, the committee resolved to accept submissions on an ongoing basis. Submissions closed on 30 July 2024, ahead of the report tabling.
1.27The committee published a total of 174submissions. These submissions reflect a broad segment of Australian society and came from submitters from across the country. A list of submissions is included at Appendix 2.
1.28The committee conducted 17 public hearings around the country. A list of the locations of the hearings and the witnesses who attended these hearings can be found at Appendix 3.
1.29In addition, the committee conducted a delegation to New Zealand (NZ) from 8 to 12 April 2024 to learn from their experiences in disaster response and recovery. The committee met with a number of government agencies, representatives, non-government organisations, and research institutes. A summary of the committee’s visit to NZ is at Appendix 1.
1.30The committee was originally to present a final report by 14September2023. However, on 9August2023, the Senate agreed to extend the committee's reporting date to 24April2024. A further extension was granted until 8 August 2024.
1.31The committee tabled an interim report on 14 September 2023.
Interim report
1.32The interim report gave a high-level overview of the conduct of the inquiry and summarised the key themes that had been raised through the evidence received so far. The committee received evidence covering a broad range of issues, some of which were determined to be outside of the scope of the committee’s work. The committee made four recommendations recognising that some reviews were already in progress elsewhere and that other committees would be better placed to investigate some of the more niche areas, including insurance and land planning.
1.33The committee notes that inquiries and reviews relating to the interim report’s recommendations are ongoing or yet to be publicly released.
Structure of this report
1.34This report contains four chapters which include the committee’s views and recommendations throughout:
Chapter 1 has provided background information on the effect of climate change on the frequency and severity of natural disasters in Australia, and outlined conduct of the inquiry, including the committee’s interim report;
Chapter 2 will define and discuss disaster resilience, and outline the challenges facing Australia’s current disaster mitigation, response and recovery arrangements;
Chapter 3 addresses the decline of volunteerism in Australia, what this means for Australia’s disaster resilience, and how it can be addressed; and
Chapter 4 discusses the role of the ADF in responding to natural disasters, before canvassing alternative disaster response models. This chapter also considers relevant international examples.
Acknowledgement
1.35The committee would like to thank all the individuals and organisations who have assisted the committee with its work, including those who wrote submissions and those who gave evidence at hearings.
1.36In particular, the committee wishes to thank those individuals who, having themselves gone through the trauma of fires and floods, were willing to recount their still painful experiences. The committee admires the honesty and courage of those individuals in sharing their stories.