Chapter 2
Trends in waste production in Australia
2.1
This chapter addresses term of reference (a) concerning trends in waste
production across Australia. It considers waste generation trends; deficiencies
in waste data; some of the key areas of waste growth in Australia; and the
impact of such waste on our environment, society and economy.
2.2
Waste is what society throws away because it is no longer needed, wanted
or valued and can be generated at each stage of the production process from
extraction to consumption and includes items that can be used again.[1] Waste can be classified by source (municipal,
commercial and industrial, construction and demolition) or by composition (such
as organic, paper, glass, metal, and plastic). Just as the physical and
chemical properties of waste materials are different, each individual material
has its own unique life cycle which affects its impact on the environment.[2]
2.3
The types of waste discussed in this report typically refer to solid
waste rather than liquid or gaseous waste. The report does not consider
'prescribed' or controlled' waste as defined in state and territory
regulations.
Waste generation is increasing
2.4
Although estimates vary, commentators agree that the amount of waste
generated in Australia each year is continuing to grow, with current generation
approaching 40 million tonnes per annum. The 2006 Productivity Commission Waste
Management report (Productivity Commission report) noted that Australia
generated approximately 32.4 million tonnes of solid waste in 2002–03,
producing an average of 1 639 kilograms per capita in that year alone.[3]
2.5
WCS Market Intelligence & WME Environment Business Media provides an
alternative estimate of more than 38 million tonnes of waste generated in Australia
in 2004–05. This represents a 34 per cent rise relative to its estimate of
28.4 million tonnes generated in 1999–2000.[4]
These figures are plotted in Figure 2.1.
2.6
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) solid waste
generation has risen at around six per cent per annum on average from an
estimated 23 million tonnes in 1996–97.[5]
This rate is faster than annual GDP growth. The ABS estimates the amount of
waste generated in Australia rose from 22.7 million tonnes in 1996–97 to 32.4
million tonnes in 2002–03.[6]
2.7
The Productivity Commission report concluded that despite difficulties
resulting from the differences in how data is collected and reported, it was
reasonable to conclude that total waste generated per person in Australia has
been increasing over time.[7]
Indeed, the Department of the Environment, Water,
Heritage and the Arts (Environment Department) has stated that from
1996–97 to 2002–03 there was a 42 per cent increase in waste generated in Australia.[8]
2.8
In 2005 the Australia Institute put a dollar figure on the nation's consumption
patterns. Its Wasteful Consumption in Australia report revealed that in
2004, Australians spent $10.5 billion on goods and services that they never or
hardly ever used with food consumption amounting to the largest waste category.[9]
The report highlighted that Australians threw away $5.3 billion worth of all
forms of food in 2004 which by comparison was thirteen times the amount donated
by Australian households to overseas aid agencies in 2003.[10]
Figure 2.1—Waste Generation and Management in Australia
WCS Market Intelligence & WME Environment Business
Media, The Blue Book – Australian Waste Industry, 2008, p. 49 and
Productivity Commission, Waste Management, Report no. 38, 2006, p.
xxvii.[11]
2.9
Medium to long term projections show a similar trend. For example Hyder
Consulting estimated that based, on data from Sydney, Victoria and the Australian
Capital Territory, waste generated in Australia would rise from 31.6 million
tonnes in 2002–03 to 42.6 million tonnes in 2012–13 and 57.5 million tonnes in
2022–23 assuming an average annual per capita GDP growth of 1.88 per cent and
average annual population growth of 1.13 per cent. By 2022–23, the
projected tonnage of material disposed in landfill would amount to over 31.6
million compared to an estimated 25.8 million tonnes recycled.[12]
2.10
The Environment Department cautions that Australia lacks reliable,
comprehensive, contemporary waste information at a national level which would
otherwise inform projected waste trends.[13]
Indeed, as the department stated in its submission, it requires 'more robust
information to allow it to better understand not only the level and types of
waste generated but the implications of this for the environment, the economy
and society'.[14]
The poor quality of waste–related data in Australia is discussed later in this
chapter.
Drivers of waste generation
2.11
According to the ABS, the drivers behind the growth in waste generation
in Australia include economic, demographic and geographic factors such as a
growth in household incomes and corporate earnings.[15]
As noted above waste generation is increasing at a more rapid rate than GDP
growth. The Productivity Commission noted that Australia’s economic prosperity
over the past decade or so has undoubtedly contributed to the growth in waste generation,
which appears to be positively related to growth in household incomes and
corporate earnings.[16]
2.12
One of the consequences of Australia's materially intensive economy is
the production of relatively large qualities of waste.[17]
Changes in population demographics including the fact that Australians are
increasingly living in smaller household groups and consume a greater amount of
smaller-serve goods which have higher packaging-to-product ratios than
larger-serve goods, have all contributed to the growth in waste production.
Coupled with this trend is the fact that consumer goods are more accessible and
affordable than ever before.
2.13
The trend away from the production of re-usable to single use products,
spurred by purported consumer demand for greater convenience, has led to a
substantial increase in waste generation. This 'out with the old, in with the
new' lifestyle has ensured that Australians live in a highly disposable
society. As one case in point, Australians purchased more than 25 million
electronic products in 2007 at a time when the country had a stockpile of 123
million items of e-waste.[18]
Increasing complexity and toxicity
of waste
2.14
The ABS noted that associated with the large increase in the number and
diversity of products available in Australia, there has been an increase in
waste diversity, toxicity and complexity over the past decades.[19]
2.15
Electronic waste or e-waste is one such example of a complex waste that
is estimated to be growing at more than three times the rate of general
municipal waste.[20]
Each year Australians buy more than one million televisions and 2.4 million
computers.[21]
In some cases, a range of hazardous chemicals contained in e-waste may diffuse
into the landfill leachate.[22]
In instances where there is poor leachate control, for example when landfills
are not lined or the liners fail, contaminants may escape into the wider
environment including groundwater and adjacent waterways. The Environment
Department recognises that it is difficult to quantify the nature and extent of
this problem as well as the net environmental cost of such diffuse impacts,
particularly when it may take decades before serious environmental impacts
become evident. The department acknowledges that in considering end-of-life
computer management, both recycling initiatives and improved landfill practices
may need consideration.[23]
Various options for managing e-waste are discussed at greater length in chapter
5.
2.16
Another area of growing concern is the disposal of used motor oil. Each
year, more than 500 million litres of lubricating oil is sold in Australia and many
car and machinery engines produce large volumes of used oil, which is a highly
concentrated and toxic material that can be reclaimed and reused. Indeed,
estimates suggest that between 280 and 300 million litres per annum of used oil
is generated by industry and the community and is available for recycling.[24]
The environmental impact of used oil is such that one litre of used oil can
contaminate up to one million litres of water.[25]
2.17
Marketing innovations in the packaging industry have also led to an
increasingly complex waste stream. One striking example raised in evidence was
a single-serve tuna and biscuits snack which uses nine different items of
packaging.[26]
Continued reliance on landfill
2.18
According to the ABS, 'Australia has a strong dependence on landfill for
waste management with more than half (54 per cent) of all solid waste, some
17 million tonnes, deposited in 2002–03.'[27]
The ABS estimates that 70 per cent of municipal waste, 56 per cent of commercial
and industrial waste, and 43 per cent of construction and demolition waste went
into landfill in 2002–03. These sectoral trends are explored in more detail
later in this chapter.
2.19
The 'goods' side of the Australian economy tends to involve a linear extraction-production-consumption-disposal
model rather than a closed-loop resource efficiency model, which results in
vast quantities of used materials ending up in landfill. National- and state-level
trends in waste disposal to landfill are considered in more detail in
chapter 3.
Increasing rate of recycling
2.20
At the same time as waste generation is increasing, the rate of
recycling is also increasing. Recycling waste materials reduces the volume of
waste disposed in landfills. According to the ABS the amount of waste recycled
in Australia has increased both in absolute terms and as a proportion of total
waste generated. Overall, the recycling rate was estimated by the ABS to be 46
per cent in 2002–03. This figure represents the amount that has been
reprocessed into a usable production input and not just the amount collected
for recycling.[28]
2.21
However despite the increased rate of recycling, the overall amount of
waste being disposed of in landfill is increasing due to the overwhelmingly
rapid rate of waste generation. As Figure 2.1 demonstrates, the increased
recycling rate has not kept pace with overall waste generation rates, resulting
in an increasing amount of 'end-use' material being landfilled. Trends in
recycling rates within the various waste sectors is discussed in detail in
chapter 3.
Deficient information on waste
2.22
A recurring theme throughout this inquiry was
the lack of consistent and complete waste data. This is partly a
consequence of the different regulatory structures of different states and
territories which apply different definitions to waste and therefore report
data differently. Gaps in geographical coverage and types of waste streams and
materials also exist. The end result is that any attempt to compare waste
management challenges and performance across states and territories is
problematic, as are comparisons of performance against policy objectives. The
complexity of Australia's waste data issue was articulated by the ABS:
Quantifying waste data, and trends in waste production, requires
compiling information from throughout the economy, from the originating sources
of the waste, to the organisations and government agencies that manage the
waste once it leaves the point of production, and potentially to the end users
of the waste or associated by-products. The flow of waste involves individuals,
industry, not-for-profit organisations and all levels of government. Currently
waste data sources are many and varied, as is the quality and frequency of
availability of the data.[29]
2.23
Not only is the comparison data between states and territories
problematic, but there are also complexities around the data obtained within individual
jurisdictions given that definitions of waste and waste categories, as well as
regulatory structures change over time. The New South Wales Government, for
example, noted that a tightening of its regulatory regime has led to a greater
volume of material being defined as 'waste' which is reflected in a numerical
increase in the waste volume. In general terms, evidence provided by representatives
of the New South Wales Government indicated that disposal data is the 'firmest'
because it is easier to establish what is going into landfill.[30]
2.24
The ABS acknowledges that there is currently no 'comprehensive, reliable
and on-going source of waste information in Australia' and notes caution in the
use of a single statistic. However, available data are cited in this report to
provide an indication of the volumes of waste that are produced and therefore
must be managed in Australia.[31]
The need for a national data gathering mechanism is discussed further in
chapter 4.
International comparisons
2.25
Whilst it is difficult to establish precisely the total amount of waste
generated in Australia, it is also difficult to compare statistics on waste generation
and waste management between countries for similar reasons.[32]
Nevertheless, on a per capita basis, Australians are reported to be among
the highest producers of waste in the world.[33]
In 2004, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
estimated that Australians each generated approximately 690 kilograms of
municipal waste (based on late 1990s statistics), which was at the time, the
third-highest in the OECD and well above the per capita average of 590
kilograms.[34]
Waste streams
2.26
Of the total 32.4 million tonnes of solid waste generated in Australia
in 2002–03, the Productivity Commission estimated that approximately 27 per
cent (or about 8.7 million tonnes) was municipal waste, 29 per cent (or 9.4
million tonnes) commercial and industrial (C&I) waste, and 42 per cent (or
13.6 million tonnes) was construction and demolition (C&D) waste.[35]
Such estimates which are represented in the following chart do not include
waste generated and dealt with on-site by the waste generator.[36]
Figure 2.2—Solid waste generation in Australia
by waste streams
Productivity
Commission, Waste Management, Report no. 38, 2006, p. 16.
2.27
For the purposes of comparison, the WCS Market Intelligence & WME Environment
Business Media estimated that of the total 38.2 million tonnes of waste
generated in Australia in 2004–05, 10.7 million tonnes (or 28 per cent) was
produced by the municipal sector, 12.5 million tonnes (or 33 per cent) by the
C&I sector and 15.1 million tonnes (or 39 per cent) by the C&D sector.[37]
2.28
The increasing generation of waste across the country poses a sizeable
challenge to our waste management infrastructure. Unless the resource recovery
rate surpasses the rate of waste generation, more material (including valuable recyclables)
will loose their productive capacity by ending up in landfill. In the Australian
Capital Territory, as one case in point, a 2006–07 survey revealed that whilst
566 633 tonnes of waste (or 74 per cent of waste generated) was recovered for
recycling, the amount of waste disposed to landfill had risen by 5 112 tonnes
to 197 425 tonnes or 2.7 per cent from the previous year.[38]
At the same time, waste generation was estimated to have risen over the same
period to 815 000 tonnes.[39]
2.29
Figure 2.3 provides a sectoral and jurisdictional breakdown of the
various waste streams discussed below. It demonstrates the diversity in the
proportions of municipal, C&I and C&D waste going to landfill in each
jurisdiction.
Figure 2.3—Waste disposed to landfill by type and jurisdiction,
2002–03
Department of the Environment
and Heritage, Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste
Generation and Resource Efficiency, 2005, cited in Australian Bureau of
Statistics, Australia's Environment:
Issues and Trends, Solid Waste in
Australia, Report no. 4613.0, 2006.
2.30
Solid waste can be managed in different ways and the method of
management will depend on the location, source and type of waste involved and
the financial viability of different management methods and policies. The most
common method in Australia is landfill but others include material recovery
facilities and advanced waste treatment. The method of management will also determine
its environmental impact. Moreover, the form of waste management will influence
additional effects including littering and illegal dumping which have their own
environmental and social impacts.
Municipal waste
2.31
Municipal waste includes domestic solid waste and other
municipally-collected waste from schools, street litter bins, parks etc., which
are non-hazardous.[40]
According to the ABS, the materials in municipal waste are reasonably
consistent across the country with organic materials (originating from food
scraps and garden waste) making up the 47 per cent of household waste by weight.[41]
2.32
Hyder Consulting established that, based on trend data, in all jurisdictions
except Tasmania and the Northern Territory, approximately 8.9 million tonnes of
municipal solid waste was generated in 2002–03.[42]
Of this total, 6.2 million tonnes were disposed to landfill and 2.7 million
tonnes was recycled.[43]
2.33
A slightly different result was published in a report of WCS Market
Intelligence & WME Environment Business Media, which found that an
estimated 10.6 million tonnes of municipal waste was generated 2004–05 of
which the main discard materials are contained in the following table.
Table 2.1—Municipal Waste Management in Australia
|
Main Discard Materials |
Tonnes/Year |
% of waste
generated |
|
Recycled (paper, plastic, glass, metal cans) |
1.8 million |
17 |
|
Garden waste processed |
1.8 million |
17 |
|
Mixed residual waste processed |
0.2 million |
2 |
|
Residual waste disposed |
6.8 million |
64 |
WCS Market Intelligence & WME Environment Business
Media, The Blue Book – Australian Waste Industry, 2008, p. 8.
2.34
The Productivity Commission found that municipal waste comprised
47 per cent food and garden waste, 23 per cent paper, 7 per cent
glass, 5 per cent metals, 4 per cent plastics, 1 per cent building rubble and
timber respectively, and 12 per cent 'other'.[44]
2.35
Differences in the composition of materials in the municipal waste
stream influence the way that such materials are managed. The Productivity
Commission noted that the prevalence of food and garden waste in municipal
waste can make it difficult to extract other recyclable materials which have
greater value to recyclers without first having it sorted by householders.[45]
Without adequate sorting, a substantial volume of such materials goes to
landfill due to contamination. Moreover, food and garden waste in the municipal
waste stream are a significant source of greenhouse gases from the waste
industry, as such wastes biodegrade in landfill. Greenhouse gas emissions
emanating from the waste sector are discussed later in this chapter.
Commercial and industrial waste
2.36
Commercial and industrial (C&I) waste is comprised of a diverse
range of waste materials. According to the Productivity Commission the main
components of C&I waste are: paper 22 per cent; metals 22 per cent; food
and garden 13 per cent; timber 9 per cent; and plastics 6 per cent.[46]
The C&I sector is made up of diverse range of small businesses without
dedicated waste services through to large operators with substantial waste
management issues.
2.37
According to the Productivity Commission, in 2002–03, of the 32.4
million tonnes of solid waste generated in Australia, 29 per cent comprised
C&I waste.[47]
Hyder Consulting established that, based on trend data, in all jurisdictions
except Tasmania and the Northern Territory, just over 9.4 million tonnes of
C&I was generated in 2002–03 of which 5.3 million (56 per cent) was
disposed of to landfill and 4.1 million tonnes (43 per cent) recycled.[48]
2.38
According to WCS Market Intelligence & WME Environment Business
Media, of the 12.5 million tonnes of waste generated in the C&I sector in
2004–05, the main discard materials are contained in the following table.
Table 2.2—Commercial and Industrial Waste Management in Australia
|
Main Discard Materials |
Tonnes/Year |
% of waste
generated |
|
Recycled (paper/cardboard, plastics, glass, metals,
timber) |
4.4 million |
35 |
|
Garden waste processed |
1.7 million |
14 |
|
Food waste processed |
0.1 million |
0.8 |
|
Residual waste disposed |
6.3 million |
50.2 |
WCS Market Intelligence & WME Environment Business
Media, The Blue Book – Australian Waste Industry, 2008, p. 8.
2.39
In New South Wales, C&I waste is the biggest waste stream,
comprising nearly 50 per cent of all waste generated in the state and yet only
35 per cent of the stream is recycled.[49]
It is also the state's biggest waste challenge as it is the most diverse in
nature and in terms of the size of generators who vary from small businesses
without waste services to large operations with substantial waste management
issues.[50]
However, the volume of biodegradable waste in the stream, particularly paper
and cardboard, offers real opportunities for greenhouse gas and material
recovery.[51]
2.40
In other states, statistics are provided in terms of the amount of
C&I waste going to landfill or reprocessed. In South Australia, as one case
in point, where the C&I waste stream is the biggest challenge, of the one million
tonnes of waste going into landfill each year, around 40 0000 tonnes are from
the C&I sector. In 2005–06, C&I waste accounted for 36.4 per cent of
materials sourced for reprocessing in the state.[52]
2.41
In the Australian Capital Territory, commercial waste was the major
contributor to the increase in waste to landfill in 2006–07 with waste from
such sources increasing by almost 10 000 tonnes or 12 per cent over the
year. The practice of sending mixed waste to landfill rather than using recycling
alternatives was identified as the key factor in this growth.[53]
Construction and demolition waste
2.42
Construction and demolition (C&D) waste comprising primarily timber,
bricks, plaster off cuts, concrete, rubble, steel and excavated earth.[54]
The Productivity Commission established that 82 per cent of the C&D waste
stream is building rubble (concrete, brick, rubble and soil).[55]
According to WCS Market Intelligence & WME Environment Business Media, the
main discard materials of the 15.1 million tonnes of C&D waste generated in
2004–05 comprises 7.6 million tonnes of recycled materials (timber, steel,
concrete, rubble, soil) and 7.5 million tonnes of residual waste.[56]
2.43
Hyder Consulting established that, based on trend data, in all
jurisdictions except Tasmania and the Northern Territory, approximately 13.7
million tonnes of C&D waste was generated in 2002–03 of which 5.9 million
was sent to landfill and 7.8 million tonnes recycled.[57]
The extent of the generation of C&D waste is largely reflective of the
expansions and contractions in the building industry.
2.44
Whilst C&D waste makes up approximately 26 per cent of Queensland's
waste, in Western Australia, it is by far the largest component of the waste
disposed to landfill and represents a substantial proportion of waste recycled
in the state.[58]
Economic, social and environmental impacts of waste
2.45
The impacts of waste remain a key environmental issue for Australia
'because of potential greenhouse and water impacts, resource conservation
concerns, inappropriate disposal (e.g. through dumping and littering along with
associated environmental and health impacts) and disposal in landfill
facilities which do not meet best practice principles'.[59]
Indeed the Environment Department recognises that the changing nature of the waste
stream, emerging recovery, disposal and treatment technologies, and evolving
community expectations all present challenges for future policy on waste
management.[60]
2.46
The Productivity Commission report identified harm to the environment
and human health as a primary reason cited in evidence as to why waste is a
problem. In addition, the fact that waste is an end product of a life cycle
process that can have upstream environmental and resource depletion
implications was also an oft-cited concern.[61]
Indeed, waste generation and disposal can have significant impacts at various
stages in the product's life cycle from extraction of raw materials to
processing, marketing, transport and consumption, as well as the direct impacts
associated with disposal.
2.47
Due to a range of market failures as well as institutional and
regulatory barriers, not all of these environmental costs are reflected in the
market prices. According to the ABS, the failure of some markets to achieve
cost-reflective pricing can result in ineffective use of resources, lower
economic growth than would otherwise be the case, and adverse environmental and
social impacts.[62]
The following sections discuss the economic, social and environmental impacts
of Australian waste management practices.
Economic impacts
2.48
The waste industry comprises waste management operators who deal
with the collection and transportation, consolidation and transfer, material
sorting, material recycling and processing, and disposal activities. Estimates
suggest that waste management services sales are approximately $4.8 billion a
year and that the infrastructure of the waste management industry has a current
value in excess of $2 billion.[63]
2.49
Of other sources, the ABS estimated that in 2002–03, the income
generated by private and public trading businesses providing waste management
services in Australia generated an income of just under $2.7 billion contributing
0.2 per cent to the GDP for that year. Of this, 20 per cent, or $0.5 billion,
was accrued from the treatment, processing and/or disposal of waste. At the end of June 2003, there were 1 092 private and
public trading businesses providing waste management services in Australia. These
businesses employed 14 386 people.[64]
2.50
The Boomerang Alliance puts the total combined cost of waste collection,
recycling and disposal at $2.68 billion per year of which it estimates about
$750 million is derived from the sale of recyclate. However, lost
commodity values resulting from the failure to recover materials that could
otherwise be recycled amounts to $1.1 billion.[65]
2.51
In terms of the economic benefits of recycling, the Australian
Council of Recyclers stated that the economic benefits include employment,
infrastructure investment, and the value‑added
to recovered materials. Indirect economic benefits are identified as the use of
accounting, legal and other services, industry and employee spending on other
consumer goods and services; and payment of taxes, rates and fees. According to
the Australian Council of Recyclers, in 2006 the Australian recycling industry
had a turnover of $11.5 billion, contributing 1.2 per cent of Australia's
GDP and a capital investment of over $6 billion. That year, about 10 900
people were employed by the industry directly and an additional 27 700
indirectly. The Australian Council of Recyclers estimated that the direct and
indirect benefits of this investment and employment in recycling were estimated
at $55 billion.[66]
Social impacts
2.52
Growing community awareness of the adverse impacts of waste, including
the depletion of natural and often limited resources, has encouraged greater
focus on waste avoidance and recovery. Such concerns are reflected in
government targets such as zero waste and the development of state and
territory waste management strategies guided by the waste hierarchy, under
which waste avoidance is preferred over the reuse of waste and reuse preferable
to recycling with disposal as the least desirable option. Whilst such
initiatives have led to a significant increase in recycling as opposed to
landfill, of the 32 million tonnes of waste generated in Australia in 2002–03,
approximately 15 million tonnes or 46 per cent were recycled.[67]
The remaining 54 per cent were sent to landfill.[68]
2.53
The challenge facing waste management policy makers is to address the
nexus between growing GDP and increasing consumerism and resource consumption.
Part of this challenge implies addressing of community attitudes to waste which
are contradictory. On the one hand, the overwhelming attitude is that materials
at the end of their life are of little or no value and can therefore be managed
as cheaply as possible, typically involving landfill. This is largely due the
exclusion of environmental and social externalities in waste management cost
structures.
2.54
On the other hand, there is growing interest in minimising the
environmental impact of waste by way of reuse and recycling. A 2008 Zero Waste
South Australia survey revealed that 63 per cent of the 1 206 individuals
surveyed indicated that they were aware of the greenhouse gas benefits of
recycling including less waste to landfill. At the same time, 94 per cent of
the sample indicated that as a society, we are consuming too much and producing
too much waste.[69]
Narrowing the gap, between community aspirations for environmental sustainability,
and inappropriate consumer practices, is the key challenge.
Environmental impacts
2.55
The growth in waste generation in Australia has major consequences for
the environment, through increased greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE), natural
resource depletion, water use and leachate contamination. Each of these issues
is discussed below.
Greenhouse gas emissions
2.56
In 2006 Australia’s net GHGE totalled 576 million tonnes of carbon
dioxide equivalent (Mt CO2-e) under the accounting provisions of the
Kyoto Protocol.[70]
The waste sector represented around 3 per cent or 16.6 Mt CO2-e of
the national total. These figures do not include emissions from the
transportation of waste (which are included under 'transport' in the national
greenhouse accounts).
2.57
By far the largest contributor to waste sector GHGE is the decomposition
of organic waste in landfill including paper and cardboard,
food and garden organics, and wood and timber. As the organic carbon of such
materials in landfill decomposes, it produces a waste gas which comprises
approximately 50 per cent methane and 50 per cent CO2.
2.58
An estimated 9.5 million tonnes of organic material (or approximately 67 per cent
of the 14.1 million tonnes of organic waste generated) is disposed of in
landfill each year across the country.[71]
2.59
In New South Wales alone, 4.3 million tonnes of food, garden, paper and
wood waste is generated annually of which 59 per cent ends up in landfill.[72]
The New South Wales Government recognises that landfill accounts for 90
per cent of the waste sector's emissions and that currently, New South Wales
landfills emit approximately 5.4 Mt of CO2-e per annum which is
expected to increase to 6.1 Mt by 2050 without intervention.[73]
2.60
Unlike other sectors such as stationary energy and transport, emissions
from the waste sector have reduced over time.[74]
According to the most recent national greenhouse accounts, net waste emissions in
2006 (16.6 Mt CO2-e) decreased by around 11 per cent since 1990 (from
18.8 Mt CO2-e). Further reductions are expected during the Kyoto
period with waste emissions expected to decrease by around 14 per cent
(to 15 Mt CO2-e) between 2008–12 compared to 1990 levels.[75]
2.61
The decrease in waste GHGE is largely due to the recovery of waste
methane gas from landfills. In 2005, gross waste sector emissions were reduced
by around 3.9 Mt CO2-e (around 19 per cent) through the capture
of methane emissions for electricity generation and flaring (burning) at
landfills.[76]
Rates of methane recovery from solid waste have increased substantially from a
negligible amount in 1990 to around 16.8 per cent in 2005.
2.62
Apart from GHGE resulting from landfilling organic material, the waste
sector has the potential to abate GHGE by substituting recycled product for
high embodied energy materials such as aluminium (also referred to as
'congealed energy'[77]).
Ecos Corporation highlighted the environmental benefits of recycling aluminium:
For example the manufacture of one tonne
of aluminium requires 206 GJ of energy to transform bauxite into alumina, and
then alumina into aluminium smelting. The associated greenhouse gas emission
from one tonne of aluminium manufacture is 20.2 tonnes of CO2e. By contrast the energy used to recycle one tonne
of aluminium for reuse is 14.1 giga-joules, a net saving in embodied energy of
191.9 giga-joules, which equates to a greenhouse gas saving (carbon abatement)
of 18.8 tCO2e.[78]
2.63
Clearly a key challenge for the waste industry in terms of tackling
climate change is addressing its handling of organic waste. This issue as well
as other opportunities to reduce Australia's GHGE are further considered in
chapters 3 and 4 of this report.
Natural resource depletion
2.64
Disposal of waste, as opposed to reuse or recycling, implies that the
existing resources that constitute the waste are lost to the economy and as a result
virgin materials are required to manufacture new products. Given the overall
recycling rate in Australia of 46 per cent, the potential to recover and
utilise materials currently disposed of in landfill is considerable. The use of
recycled materials in manufacturing processes enables a reduction in the amount
of virgin materials and energy used. Waste disposal represents a loss of
valuable resources to the economy.
2.65
A number of submissions highlighted the environmental benefits of
recovering both renewable and non-renewable materials including paper,
cardboard, metals, plastic and glass.[79]
The Boomerang Alliance estimated that recovery of all such materials would
save:
- 7.6 million tonnes of C02e p.a. (about the same as
switching 1.26 million Australian homes to 100% renewable energy);
- 173 gigalitres of water per annum (enough to permanently supply
some 514,000 Australian homes with water); and
- Improved air quality in the vicinity of 19.9 billion units of
Smog Precursors (gC2H4-e) (similar to permanently
removing 4.6 million cars from Australian roads).[80]
2.66
E-waste contains rare and non-renewable resources, some of which are
reaching their extraction peak, including gallium, which according to the Total
Environment Centre is already running out.[81]
2.67
In terms of other non-renewable resources, evidence focused on aluminium
and plastics. Mr Ian Kiernan, Chairman of Clean Up Australia, highlighted that
landfilling aluminium containers represented a lost opportunity to reduce
environmental damage through a saving in embodied energy:
We know that, for the same amount of energy it takes to make an
aluminium can out of new material, you can make seven aluminium containers out
of recycled material. It is just plain good sense. Australia would save 5.6 gigalitres
of drinking water per annum without producing new bottles through this scheme
[a national container deposit scheme]. That is enough to supply 16,784 homes with
water.[82]
2.68
The Australian Council of Recyclers identify the resource savings from
recycling plastics as 60 000 tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) of polyethylene
terephthalate or PET and 90 000 toe saving of high density polyethylene
(HDPE), which equate to 430 000 and 650 000 barrels of oil
equivalents respectively.[83]
2.69
Renewable resources can cause environmental externalities in both their
extraction and transformation. In the case of paper and cardboard, 51 per cent
of the environmental impact of using virgin material is avoided by recycling.[84]
The Australian Council of Recyclers note additional environmental benefits of
recycling paper and cardboard:[85]
The resource saving as a result of the reprocessing of
Australian post consumer paper/cardboard is equivalent to three million trees.
In the order of 365,000 tonnes of sand, over four million tonnes of iron ore
and 1.6 million tonnes of bauxite is being saved through these
reprocessing activities.
2.70
VISY Industries Australia noted that recycling 1000 tonnes of paper and
cardboard would result in the following environmental benefits:
- energy saving of 18,000 gigajoules
which is adequate to power 833 homes,
- a reduction of 3,231 cubic metres
of landfill,
- 400 tonnes of CO2 saved,
equivalent to permanently removing 96 cars of the road, and
- water saving amounting to 23,700
litres of water, the equivalent of 9 Olympic size swimming pools.[86]
2.71
Whilst the current national recycling rate of paper and cardboard is
difficult to ascertain, Mr Mike Ritchie, NSW President of the Waste Management
Association of Australia stated that 89 per cent of office towel paper and 55
per cent of cardboard alone are going to landfill in Australia.[87]
Providing consolidated figures across jurisdictions for 2002–03, the Boomerang
Alliance maintains that of the 5 921 million tonnes of paper, cardboard
and pulp waste generated that year, 61 per cent was sent to landfill.[88]
Water consumption
2.72
Due to the severe drought conditions over the past decade, water conservation
and security have become issues of considerable national importance. Opportunities
to reduce and recycle water include the retrieval of water (along with energy
and nutrients) from sewerage.[89]
Recycling compared to the use of virgin materials generally requires far less
water. According to the Boomerang Alliance, based on 2002–03 waste generation
and recycling figures, the full recovery of recyclable material including
paper, cardboard, metals, plastic and glass would save an estimated 173
gigalitres of water per annum which is enough to permanently supply about 514
000 houses with water.[90]
2.73
A reduction in organics to landfill not only reduces water pollutants
substantially.[91]
Once transformed into compost, its use in agricultural applications also
improves the water retention capacity of soil thereby amounting to additional
water savings.[92]
Organic waste is discussed in greater depth in chapter 4.
Leachate contamination
2.74
A key aspect of the environmental management of landfill is leachate
treatment systems. Leachate can damage human health and the environment if it comes
into contact with surface or groundwater and enters the food chain or comes into
contact with sensitive ecosystems. Contaminants in leachate considered to pose the
greatest risks are heavy metals (such as lead, mercury, cadmium and copper),
and metal oxoanions (including chromate, arsenate and selenate). Leachate can
contain high amounts of ammonia and can have high biological oxygen demand,
both of which can be harmful to aquatic life.[93]
2.75
The Productivity Commission recognised that estimates of the external
costs of leachate damage should take into account the risk that leachate can damage
human health and the environment. The level of risk will depend on the location
of the landfill, its construction including landfill liners, and how leachate
is managed.[94]
2.76
Nolan-ITU estimated that the long-term environmental costs of leachate
and landfill gas emissions would be substantially more than $150 per tonne of
municipal solid waste disposed of to best practice landfill.[95]
As an environmental externality of landfill, leachate poses a risk that must be
effectively managed and therefore costed into the landfill price.
2.77
Hyder Consulting calculated leachate generation (including contaminated
run‑off) to be 187.6 litres/tonne over 30 years based on weighted average
rainfall for Australian capital cities.[96]
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