- Introduction
Background
1.1Australians consume more single-use plastic per person than any other country in the world, except Singapore. In 2020-21, Australia used 3.79 million tonnes of plastic, of which only 14 per cent was recycled. Around 130,000 tonnes of plastic leak into the environment annually, including in our oceans and waterways.
1.2There are currently 150 million metric tonnes of plastic pollution in the ocean and by 2040, global plastic pollution is expected to double, with the ocean’s plastic pollution expected to more than quadruple. Plastic Oceans Australia said that by 2050, the amount of plastic waste in the environment could increase to 26 billion tonnes if no action is taken.
1.3Three quarters of the pollution on Australia’s coastlines is made up of plastic, posing a significant risk to biodiversity, human health and fisheries management. According to CSIRO, almost 700 species of marine life have interacted with marine debris. Entanglement in abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear (known as ‘ghost nets’), plastic bags, ropes, clothing and six-pack rings are the most common form of plastic-related injuries to sea turtles, marine mammals, seabirds and whales. Entanglement causes ‘restricted mobility, scoliosis, starvation, smothering and wounding, which in turn leads to infections, amputation of limbs, and death.’
1.4When marine life ingest plastic, it can block their digestive system and cause a long, slow death from starvation. Chemical additives in plastic can leach into the air, water and soil and can be toxic to many plants and animals. It is predicted that by 2025, 99 per cent of seabirds worldwide will have ingested some form of plastic.
1.5Microplastics, microfibres and macroplastics leak into Australia’s oceans and waterways through several routes, including: wastewater which can contain billions of microplastics that are discharged daily; stormwater runoff; domestic and international illegal dumping; poor management of waste on land; and floods. Microplastics have now been found in all environments including polar regions, and in food such as sea salt and beer.
1.6In 2021, the Australian Government launched the National Plastics Plan (NPP), which set out goals and actions to reduce the effects of plastics in the environment by supporting the reduction of waste and increasing recycling rates, finding alternatives, and supporting research, innovation and data analysis.
1.7Stakeholders to the inquiry supported aspects of the NPP, in particular its focus on reducing the environmental footprint of packaging materials and prioritising a circular economy. However, the Plan was criticised for its lack of detailed strategies for addressing the infrastructure challenges associated with a transition to a circular economy, the absence of tangible progress in reaching packaging targets and a missed opportunity for a roadmap for managing plastics across all sectors.
Defining plastics
1.8The abundance of plastic in contemporary society presents challenges in both its use and its disposal or reuse. Evidence to the inquiry highlighted issues in defining plastics and understanding what it comprises, as well as the many ways that plastic is labelled for consumers.
1.9Plastic comprises a diverse range of synthetic polymers with varied chemical compositions, structures and applications. As Ms Elise Tuuri explained:
When you look at plastics, there are lots of additives, plasticisers, flame retardants, dyes all added into that. They all have different impacts on different marine organisms, depending on the levels. That’s what makes microplastics and plastic in the ocean such a complex contaminant, because there is not a one-size-fits-all model or approach towards them.
1.10The Minderoo Foundation described the composition of plastics as follows:
Plastics are composed of a polymer matrix, mixed with additives such as plasticisers and flame retardants, which are usually not chemically bonded to the polymer, and can leach out into the air, water and soil during all phases of the product life cycle.
1.11The Academy of Science noted that ‘not all plastics are the same and policy should reflect this’.
1.12Adding to this, much of the plastic consumed in Australia comes from overseas, which can lead to a lack of information on its composition. Chemistry Australia explained that roughly two thirds of the plastics consumed by Australians are ‘imported finished goods’.
1.13The term ‘contains recycled plastics’ also adds to the complexity. The absence of a standard definition of recycled plastics can leave consumers, manufacturers and regulatory bodies in Australia with uncertainty. Clean Up Australia noted:
Today, we have a confusing array of plastic and plastic derivatives entering our supply chain, only a small percentage of which can be collected and recycled into new products.
1.14Factors such as the percentage of recycled content, the types of plastics involved, and the methods of recycling employed further complicates the classification of plastics. This will be discussed further in Chapter 3.
1.15Numerous submissions provided recommendations on how labelling for plastic could be standardised. Tangaroa Blue Foundation suggested standardising definitions and guidelines for products claiming to be made from ‘ocean plastics’, ‘ocean-bound plastics’ or ‘potential ocean-bound plastics’. Ms Jo Larkin, a Citizen Scientist at AUSMAP, defining microplastics, with specific components like ‘pellets, flakes and powders’.
1.16The NSW Environment Protection Agency (EPA) stated that ‘consistent Australia-wide standards and definitions’ are important to streamline processes, enhance industry compliance and work towards meeting set targets.
1.17Various organisations, including Please Save Our Beaches and Clean Up Australia, supported clear definitions and a coordinated government response. The Australian Marine Conservation Society (AMCS) called for the Australian Government to set ‘nationally agreed, enforceable definitions of single-use, reusable and recyclable products.’
1.18The Council of Capital City Lord Mayors emphasised the importance of advancing the development of nationally harmonised definitions to phase out problematic single-use plastics and to reform packaging regulations by 2025, which would be in line with circular economy principles.
1.19Plastic Oceans Australasia recommended the implementation of a comprehensive classification based on use types: single-use, long-life, durable and essential plastics. It also recommended aligning policy responses with these identified categories, placing particular emphasis on eliminating short-term single-use plastics and promoting eco-friendly alternatives for long-life plastics.
1.20NSW EPA pointed out that the absence of a clear and nationally consistent classification of plastics resulted in certain items being prohibited in some jurisdictions, while being permitted in others. NSW EPA noted different stances taken by states and territories on the role of biodegradable and compostable plastics leading to a situation where:
…items totally banned in one state may be accepted in organic waste streams in another if that jurisdiction has the capability to process that material. These inconsistencies make compliance difficult for businesses that operate nationwide and risk sending a mixed message to consumers.
1.21AMCS contended that confusion in definitions between state and territory governments and voluntary standards for compostability and biodegradability have led to ‘rampant’ greenwashing.
Sources of plastic pollution
1.22Most floating debris in coastal and offshore waters is plastic. According to CSIRO this debris ranges from ‘a few thousand pieces of plastic per square kilometre to more than 40,000 pieces of plastic per square kilometre’.
1.23Plastic pollution can be broadly classified by size as microplastics (including microfibres), or macroplastics. Scientists in Norway and Austria have identified plastic particles that are even smaller than microplastics (particles of under 1 μm), but these are currently under-researched.
1.24Microplastics are ‘plastic particles smaller than 5 mm that come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and polymer types, and are mostly invisible to our eyes’.[43] The Australian Rivers Institute explained that, depending on their origin, microplastics can be classified as primary or secondary:
Primary microplastics are produced as small particles for industrial and/or domestic use such as pellets used in plastic production or microbeads used in consumer products.
Secondary microplastics are derived from the breakdown of larger plastic products such as microfibres from synthetic polyester and nylon clothing, fragments of polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene food and product packaging, and rubber particles from tyre wear.[44]
1.25Once a contributor to plastic pollution, microbeads (solid plastic in rinse-off personal care and cleaning products) were phased out from 2015 following a ‘voluntary industry-led phase out of microbeads from 99.3% of rinse-off cosmetics, personal care, and cleaning products sold in Australia’. The Australian Rivers Institute said that the phase-out has ‘led to microbeads being almost inexistent when monitoring for microplastics in wastewater.’
1.26Rubber particles have been reported as posing a toxic threat not only from tyre wear, but through the use of rubber crumb infill on synthetic turf playing fields and soft-fall playgrounds as part of Australia’s tyre recycling program. Boomerang Alliance and Total Environment Centre said that there is evidence reflecting the toxicity of rubber crumb particles to humans and there are particles present on Australia’s beaches ‘with many having no [soft-fall] playground or synthetic field present in the immediate surroundings’.
1.27CSIRO contends that ‘within Australia there is no major research effort focusing explicitly or solely’ on tyre ash. However, the Department reported that the National Environmental Science Program, a long-term commitment by the Australian Government, currently has a project focused on identifying control and management options to minimise the impacts of secondary microplastics, such as waste tyres, through re-manufacturing of materials or providing alternative materials.
1.28Microfibres make up 35 per cent of all microplastic pollution in the environment and can be ‘smaller than 20 micrometres in size’. In addition to being derived from the breaking down of macroplastics, microfibres can also be released from washing machines and dryers where a single cycle can shed up to 1.5 million fibres per wash.[52] These fibres are then released into the environment through wastewater, however little data about microplastic discharges is publicly available.[53] The Australian Institute of Marine Science notes that microplastics and microfibres are nearly impossible to remove once in the environment.
1.29Macroplastics encompass all other discarded plastics that are larger than 5 mm. Macroplastics have a very long persistence in the environment, as they can continue to break down into microplastics, which also continue to fragment. The Australian Institute of Marine Science said that this fragmentation can occur through ‘temperature, UV irradiation, scouring by sediments, and biological activity’. It added, however, that ‘the long-term fate of plastics is not well understood’.
1.30Significant macroplastic pollutants include soft plastics such as chip packets and plastic shopping bags which can be easily transported by wind and watercourses, picnic rubbish and discarded fishing gear.
1.31Evidence was also received that cigarette butts should be considered single-use plastics as cigarette filters are ‘made of cellulose acetate, which is a type of bioplastic’, taking up to 15 years to break down and creating thousands of microfibres. Cigarette butts are the most commonly littered item around the world, and No More Butts estimates that ‘at least 580 tonnes of plastic tobacco filters are littered into Australian waterways annually.’
1.32No Balloon Release Australia raised that ‘latex balloons are considered single use plastic as, due to added chemicals, they do not biodegrade and cannot be recycled’.
Recent inquiries and reviews
1.33There have been three parliamentary inquiries in recent years that examined aspects of plastic pollution in Australia’s oceans and waterways.
1.34In June 2015, the Senate Environment and Communications References Committee inquired into current research and understandings of plastic pollution including the sources, impacts and measures and resources for mitigation. The Committee tabled its final report Toxic tide: the threat of marine plastic in April 2016, and made 23recommendations, including that the Australian Government:
- support research into the effects and threat of marine plastic pollution and the threat posed by microplastic pollution
- consult with stakeholders to establish a national marine pollution database
- ban single-use plastic bags and microbeads
- encourage state and territory governments to implement container deposit schemes.
- In June 2018, the Senate Environment and Communications References Committee reported on its inquiry into the waste and recycling industry in Australia. The Committee recommended: a phase out of petroleum-based single-use plastics by 2023; the establishment of a Plastics Cooperative Research Centre to lead Australia's research efforts into reducing plastic waste; making product stewardship schemes mandatory; and extending producer responsibility.
- On 7 December 2020, the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Industry, Innovation, Science and Resources tabled its report, From Rubbish to Resources: Building a Circular Economy and made 24 recommendations designed to remove impediments to innovation in waste management and improve resource recovery. Key recommendations included that the Australian Government:
- in consultation with state and territory governments implement a pathway to a predominantly national circular economy through the design and composition of products for end-of-life recycling and consider regulation and incentives to encourage greater repair, reuse, recycling and recovery of materials
- update the National Waste Policy Action Plan 2019 to include measures focused on the transportation and infrastructure requirements to manage national waste across domestic borders
- nationally harmonise waste management and resource recovery policies and legislation.
- The Standing Committee on Industry, Innovation, Science and Resources also recommended that the responsible Minister should report annually on the progress of the National Waste Policy Action Plan 2019.
Scope and conduct of the inquiry
1.38The Committee adopted an inquiry into plastic pollution in Australia’s oceans and waterways on Monday, 24 October 2022, following a referral from the Minister for the Environment and Water, the Hon Tanya Plibersek MP.
1.39The terms of reference for the inquiry are provided in the front pages of this report and are available on the inquiry webpage.
1.40The Committee called for written submissions, relating to any or all the terms of reference, by Thursday, 22 December 2022.
1.41The Committee received 71 submissions and held six public hearings. The list of submissions is provided in Appendix A. The list of public hearings and witnesses is provided in Appendix B.
1.42The Committee wishes to thank all the individuals and organisations who contributed their time, experience, and expertise in making submissions and appearing at public hearings.
1.43The Committee notes that the evidence received during the inquiry does not tell the full story of plastic pollution. Since the start of the inquiry there have been changes in this space, none more significant than the collapse of the REDcycle soft plastic recycling scheme. There have been reports released, negotiations for an international treaty have continued and decisions have been made at forums such as the Environment Ministers Meeting.
1.44The Committee has tried, where possible, to ensure that it has taken as many of these developments as possible into account. However, the report reflects that much of the evidence for this inquiry dates from late 2022 and early 2023.
Report structure
1.45Chapter two considers the effectiveness of the National Plastics Plan 2021 (NPP) and related policies such as the National Packaging Targets 2025 in reducing plastic pollution. The chapter examines, in detail, each of the five key actions of the NPP and discusses suggestions on how plastic policies could be improved to better support the Australian Government’s goal to end plastic pollution by 2040.
1.46Chapter three assesses the effectiveness of the Australian Government’s engagement with the states and territories, industry and non-government organisations in reducing plastic pollution. The chapter also assesses the effectiveness of community campaigns and education programs.
1.47Chapter four considers the impact of plastic pollution on Australia’s oceans and waterways by examining the movement and distribution of plastic pollution and the effects on marine and freshwater life and ecosystems. The chapter considers the potential health implications of human exposure to microplastics, the effectiveness of community campaigns to reduce plastic pollution and current gaps in research.
1.48Chapter five considers global initiatives to reduce plastic pollution particularly in oceans and waterways. These include the current negotiations taking place on an international treaty on plastic pollution, programs taking place in the local region and international research.