Chapter 10
Education and training
10.1
Education and training are the fundamental building blocks for economic
and human development. They open up opportunities for employment and economic
activities otherwise not possible, and provide both the incentive and necessary
skills for economic progress. Furthermore, they deliver 'benefits down-stream
in health, governance, productivity, gender equality and nation-building'.[1]
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) recognise the critical importance of
education. MDG 2 seeks to achieve universal access to primary education; and MDG 3 aims to eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary schooling by 2005 and at all
levels by 2015.[2]
But as noted previously, a number of Pacific island countries are 'seriously
off track' in reaching their development goals. In this and the following
chapters on employment, the committee looks at the role of education and
training in economic development in Pacific island countries.
Skills shortages and unskilled workforce
10.2
As noted on a number of occasions in this report, skills shortages exist
in many Pacific island countries. This situation adversely affects economic
development because the countries must rely on low or unskilled labour or
import highly-paid experts from overseas.[3]
In many cases, opportunities to start a business or expand production are
foregone. The skills shortage cuts across all sectors of the economy—land,
resource and business management, transport including aviation safety,
hospitality, marketing and trade negotiation. There are skills shortages
particularly in mining, oil and gas projects and in the forestry, banking and
tourism sectors.[4]
For example, the Gladstone Pacific Nickel Ltd project to mine lateritic nickel
ore in the Solomon Islands has workers who are 'under educated and untrained'.[5]
10.3
According to Mr Ian Clarke, President, Australia Papua New Guinea
Business Council, with some projects, such as the PNG LNG, 'there is initially
going to be a need to bring in skilled labour, because PNG does not have the
technical workers—the welders and the plumbers'. However, he did not believe
skills shortages would be an ongoing issue.[6]
The Construction, Forestry, Mining and Energy Union (CFMEU) argued that 'Skills
shortages are already a capacity constraint on PNG's economy'.[7]
Fiji, Samoa and Tonga might face a similar challenge of skills shortage should
migration continue at the existing rate.[8]
10.4
Even so, there is no shortage of potential labour in the region. At a
time of skills shortage, many Pacific island countries have a large pool of
unskilled workers which is increasing as a result of growing populations. The
committee now considers the link between education and training in Pacific
island countries and the skills shortage in the region.
Basic education
10.5
Despite investments in education by the island governments, educational
achievements have stalled.[9]
In some countries, there is mounting concern about the increasing number of
students not completing basic education; falling attendance rates at secondary
schools; decreasing levels of literacy and numeracy; and low quality of, and
inequitable access to, education.[10]
In 2008, as many as one million children were said to be out of school.[11]
There is, however, significant variation between Pacific island countries in the
performance of their education systems to the extent that AusAID concluded that
progress toward universal primary education is mixed and 'the region as a whole
is not on track'.[12]
10.6
According to the ADB, some Pacific island countries have 'a long tradition
of near universal primary education', with participation rates averaging above
90 per cent.[13]
Most Polynesian countries 'have achieved close to universal primary education',
with Niue, Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu on the way to see their children, boys and
girls alike, 'able to complete a full course in primary schooling'. Fiji is
also 'progressing well' toward this goal.[14]
10.7
In stark contrast, primary school enrolment and completion rates are
poor in the Melanesian countries of PNG, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu and in the
Micronesian countries of Kiribati and Nauru. Importantly, with about three
quarters of the region's population, these countries are clearly 'off-track' or
in the case of Solomon Islands and Kiribati 'of concern' in reaching their
education MDGs. They face substantial difficulties with regard to compulsory
education enrolments and the number of drop-outs before completing primary
school. PNG is said to have the biggest challenge regarding enrolment of
children in schools, with more than half a million children still outside the
education system. Some estimates suggest that in PNG:
-
one in five (19 per cent) children does not attend school; and six
out of ten children entering grade one drop out by grade six;[15]
-
45 per cent of children in elementary and primary school are
girls but only one in three complete primary schooling, with the figure decreasing
and gender disparities growing with the level of education;[16] and
-
54 per cent of Papua New Guineans are literate and complete
primary school; and six per cent complete secondary school.[17]
10.8
In its latest report, AusAID noted that only 53 per cent of children in
PNG are enrolled in school but of the number of children who start school, only
45 per cent are expected to complete primary school. It concluded, '630,000
children (or 76 per cent of all primary school aged children) are not finishing
primary school'.[18]
Table
10.1: Net primary enrolment (NPE) rates in Pacific island countries and
progress against MDG[19]
Melanesia |
Fiji |
PNG |
Solomon Islands |
Vanuatu |
|
On track
NPE rate of 94 per cent in 2006. Primary completion
rate increased from 91 per cent in 1996 to 99 per cent in 2003. |
Off track
NPE rate and primary completion rate were the lowest
in the region in 2007, estimated at 53 per cent and 45 per cent. |
Of concern
NPE increased from 56 per cent in 1999 to 94 per
cent in 2005. Primary completion rate declined from 85 per cent in 1991 to 79
per cent in 2005. |
Off track
NPE rate improved from 75 per cent in 1989 to 85 per
cent in 2007. Primary completion rate declined from 90 per cent in 1990 to 59
per cent in 2006. |
Polynesia |
Cook Islands |
Niue |
Samoa |
Tonga |
Tuvalu |
|
Of concern
NPE rate increased from 92 per cent in 2001 to 100
per cent in 2007. Primary completion rate declined from 98 per cent in 1996
to 85 per cent in 2007. |
On track
NPE rate increased from 90 per cent in 2002 to 100
per cent in 2006. Primary completion rate increased from 91 per cent in 1998
to 100 per cent in 2005. |
On track (limited
data)
NPE rate was 90 per cent in 2004. Primary completion
rate was 94 per cent in 2000. |
On track
NPE rate increased from 89 per cent in 1996 to 95
per cent in 2005. Primary completion rate increased from 84 per cent in 1990
to 89 per cent in 2004. |
On track (limited
data)
NPE rate increased from 98 per cent in 1991 to 100
per cent in 2002. Primary completion rate was 100 per cent in 2002. |
Micronesia |
FSM |
Kiribati |
Marshall Islands |
Nauru |
Palau |
|
Of concern
NPE rate increased from 92 per cent in 2000 to 100
per cent in 2006. Primary completion rate was 67 per cent in 2000. |
Of concern
NPE rate increased from 76 per cent in 1990 to 97
per cent in 2005. Primary completion rate decreased from 98 per cent in 1990
to 82 per cent in 2003. |
Of concern
No change in NPE rate or primary completion rate
between 1999 and 2003. NPE rate was 90 per cent in 2003. Primary completion
rate was 89 per cent in 2005. |
Off track (limited
data)
NPE rate declined from 75 per cent in 1992 to 60 per
cent in 2002. Primary completion rate was 92 per cent in 2002. |
Of concern
NPE rate increased from 82 per cent in 1990 to 93
per cent in 2005. Primary completion rate was 80 per cent in 2007. |
10.9
Vanuatu was doing better than its Melanesian neighbours. AusAID
explained that although enrolments at a basic education level have risen quite
rapidly in Vanuatu:
...there are still problems with people falling out of the
system at rather rapid rates the further up they go. As they reach years 8, 9
and 10 the attrition rate becomes quite marked...We might expect to see a lagging
from there on literacy.[20]
10.10
Indeed, the latest AusAID report shows that completion rates in Vanuatu
for primary school declined from 90 per cent in 1990 to 59 per cent in 2006.[21]
10.11
Also, a large number of over-aged children are enrolling
in schools in Pacific island countries.[22]
World Vision Australia observed that their retention rates remain low and in
some cases are falling: children starting school aged 9 or 10 find it hard to
adjust, eventually leading them to drop out of school.[23]
Literacy and numeracy
10.12
A publication by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat noted that there
is 'little valid and reliable data in the region on quality measures for
education'.[24]
The following table based on World Bank data provides some statistics on
literacy skills in selected countries.
Table 10.2: Literacy[25]
|
Fiji |
Kiribati |
PNG |
Samoa |
Solomon Islands |
Tonga |
Vanuatu |
Literacy |
93.7 |
- |
64.1 |
99.4 |
- |
99.6 |
91.7 |
10.13
The paucity and unreliability of statistical information on education in
the region, however, makes it hard to determine the actual levels of literacy
and numeracy. Mr Robert Tranter, AusAID, provided a telling example:
People will always overstate their literacy levels. In
Vanuatu, for example, literacy rates at one point were stated to be about 70
per cent amongst adults. A recent survey, which took a significant sample of
the population and did testing around people’s ability to read and write in
Bislama, showed that the literacy rate would be more in the order of between 30
per cent and 35 per cent. It can highlight some overstating in statistics when
they are done in a cursory way.[26]
10.14
This conclusion is supported by a Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat
study, which found that existing data painted 'a picture of stagnating quality
or even regression'.[27]
10.15
These observations about the lack of literacy and numeracy skills in
some Pacific island countries are worrying. According to an AusAID study, many children
in the region are leaving primary school unable to read, write or solve basic
mathematical tasks.[28]
For example, in Vanuatu, almost three in ten of Year 6 students could not write
a simple dictated sentence.[29]
10.16
Consistent with school attendance, performance on literacy also varies among
Pacific island countries. Professor Helen Hughes and Mr Gaurav Sodhi, Centre
for Independent Studies, argued that the Pacific is 'sharply divided between
islands that are functionally literate and those that remain basically
illiterate'.[30]
The Pacific is 'bipolar': one group of islands (Cook Islands, French Polynesia,
Guam, New Caledonia, Samoa and Tonga) have moderate population growth and
reasonable education.[31]
Indeed, 'indicators for Fiji and Polynesian countries compare favourably to
major Asian countries'.[32]
Tonga has a very high literacy rate, estimated to be at 98 per cent in English
and Tongan.[33]
10.17
The second group of islands, including Solomon Islands and PNG,
are performing poorly. A research paper noted 'the relatively low enrolment and
literacy rates for both girls and boys' in both countries.[34] Indeed, they have 'some of the highest
population growth rates in the world and high levels of illiteracy'.[35]
Secondary education
10.18
The UN commented that for children 'to reach their full potential and
countries to develop, the gains made in universal primary education must be
replicated at the secondary level'. It noted, however, that in Oceania at
present, 'almost two thirds of children of secondary school age are out of
school'.[36]
AusAID also noted that secondary school enrolment rates are low in most
countries (around 30 per cent in Solomon Islands and Vanuatu).[37]
Even Polynesia, which has good enrolments rates at the primary level, has 'access
issues at secondary level particularly for children in remote areas'.[38]
Statistics taken from the ESCAP Economic and Social Survey 2009 show the latest
available statistics for enrolment rates in some Pacific island countries
though the data is quite old:
Table
10.3: Secondary level enrolment rates in some Pacific island countries[39]
|
Cook Islands |
Fiji |
Kiribati |
Samoa |
Solomon Islands |
Tonga |
Vanuatu |
Secondary level—Net
enrolment rate ( per cent) |
64.4 (2000) |
79.1 (2006) |
68.3 (2005) |
66.0 (2004) |
27.3 (2003) |
60.4 (2003) |
38.1 (1999) |
These figures contrast with secondary
school attendance rates for Australia 87.2 in 2006 and Japan 98.7 in 2006.
Non-formal education
10.19
At their meeting in Tonga in March 2009, the Pacific Islands Forum
education ministers noted the 'growing alarm over the large numbers of young
people, both boys and girls, who leave school without adequate skills to
further their education or obtain employment'. In their view, the formal sector
of the economy offered few employment opportunities and a great need existed for
non-formal education (NFE) that would provide training in life-skills.[40]
10.20
Rather than 'a central basic education strategy with a national
place and role in its own right', NFE is often seen as a 'supplementary basic
education strategy'. NFE activities are expanding into areas such as environment
education, legal literacy and sustainable micro-enterprise development. It is
increasing links between the community and schools through 'incorporation of
what started as NFE programs into school programs and for government employees'.[41]
An ADB study explained:
Local communities, church groups, and NGOs offer functional
literacy and skills development programs...Others provide flexible skills development
programs emphasizing functional literacy, microbusiness, and other livelihood
skills to help youth and adults with low educational attainment to develop
their potential to generate income in informal sector self-employment and wage
employment.[42]
10.21
World Vision Australia acknowledged the vital role of informal
education, stating that it 'operates as a safety net to catch the many people
who have not achieved literacy and numeracy through the formal system', and
prepares people for vocational education and employment.[43]
10.22
Donor investment in NFE is said to be considerable, directed to both continuing
education and training aimed at poverty alleviation and governance.[44]
NFE, however, is hamstrung by a number of factors. It lacks national policies, plans
and coordination, which has led to the duplication of some training activities
and gaps in programs. This sector also lacks funding for human resources
infrastructure and, according to a Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat paper, is
'a neglected area of research and policy information'.[45]
10.23
The paper suggested that NFE and formal education need to improve their
sharing of resources and ideas and student mobility between them. NFE is also
said to 'overwhelmingly favour males at the post-secondary and technical tertiary
level, although training courses for women and girls increase at community
level'.[46]
Vocational education
10.24
The small number of students with secondary qualifications and the many
who need transitional courses to qualify for classes create significant
challenges for vocational and higher education and training in the region.[47]
Thus, although vocational education is a pathway to employment, enabling people
to earn their own livelihoods, an ADB study found that it suffers from the low
educational attainment even in basic subjects such as maths, science and
English. It concluded that 'Time is consequently wasted in remedial
instruction, and dropout levels are high'.[48]
10.25
Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is provided
through schools as part of the formal education system, which includes pre-vocational
in secondary schools and post-secondary technical institutions; centre-based
trade training; and apprenticeships. Almost all Pacific island countries have
some skills courses in secondary schools and centres, and half of the countries
have an apprenticeship system in place.[49]
An ADB paper divided the Pacific island countries into three groups in terms of
their needs for vocational education and training:
-
Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu should be 'training
for the informal sector, particularly rural agriculture and related occupations'.
-
Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia,
Nauru, and Tuvalu, should focus training on the informal sector, 'with special
emphasis on delivering services to remote areas and outer islands'. Improvements
should be made regarding financial sustainability, affordability of TVET systems
and dependence on external financing. Training should facilitate migration.
-
Cook Islands, Fiji, Palau, Samoa, and Tonga 'have relatively good
prospects from tourism, emigration, and remittances'. Their top priorities are 'to
expand training for the wage sector and fill vacancies created by emigration'.[50]
Higher education
10.26
The statistics on enrolment at tertiary institutions in Pacific island
countries are outdated and incomplete. Data taken from the ESCAP Economic and
Social Survey 2009 show the latest available statistics for gross enrolment
rate ( per cent) in some Pacific island countries:
- Fiji 15.4 (2005)
- Tonga 6.0 (2004)
- Vanuatu 4.8 (2004)[51]
10.27
Mr John Millett, who spent some 30 years working in various capacities
in the region, informed the committee that 1,200 students graduate annually from
universities in PNG.[52]
Ms Jenny Hayward-Jones, Lowy Institute, was of the view that unless there are
more university graduates in the region, foreign investors will continue to
employ expatriates and the development of needed skills will not occur.[53]
10.28
In the case of Tonga, it should be noted that, although there is a very
small campus of the University of the South Pacific in Nuku'alofa, many students
go abroad to study—Australia, New Zealand, the west coast of America or Hawaii.[54]
The Australian High Commissioner to Tonga informed the committee that Tongans
claim 'to have the highest number of PhDs per capita in the world'. In his
view:
Having been there for two years, I would be prepared to say
that they could be right. You do meet a lot of PhD doctors in Tonga. They will
move through the education system and get the best out of it.[55]
10.29
The committee now considers the major impediments to improving the
standard of education and training in Pacific island countries.
Impediments to higher educational standards
Affordability
10.30
A 2007 paper prepared by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat
recognised that although most Pacific island governments provide 'free
education', many parents are still unable to meet additional costs 'such as
transportation, maintenance of school buildings and contribution fees'.[56]
Mr Geoffrey Tooth, DFAT, noted:
My experience of Papua New Guineans is that the parents and
the children have a great love of education and a great desire for it. In
recent years they have been required to fund their education, and from
everything I have seen, parents do put aside a great deal of their limited
disposable income to ensure their children do get whatever schooling is
available to them. But, as I said, there is a long way to go...[57]
10.31
Pacific Islands Forum education ministers noted that while many
countries have enjoyed high rates of access to education, this was 'in danger
of slipping in the face of increasing poverty as children from poor families
tend to have poor attendance rates'.[58]
Children who are engaged in paid or domestic work are most at risk of not
completing primary school, which is a particular issue for students from outer
islands. Their 'absence from local farming or fishing enterprises is a hardship
for their families'.[59]
Furthermore, the global financial crisis may affect many families working small
plantations: if nobody buys their produce, they will not have money to send
their children to school.[60]
For such children, there is a lack of 'meaningful "second-chance"
learning opportunities' in Pacific island countries.[61]
An ADB report stated that the poor 'need to be the primary focus of education
policy and public action' and that 'a basic, high-quality service' would
address this disengagement from education.[62]
10.32
The cost of education also influences access to vocational and higher
education where opportunities exist for only a minority, approximately 5–20 per
cent of those entering the labour market and to those 'who can afford to pay'.[63] An ADB study
found that in PNG, many students 'drop out and do not receive certificates because
their parents cannot afford continued tuition charges'.[64]
10.33
The World Bank noted that a number of government policies could assist
poor students to participate in education: governments could establish sliding
scale fees or provide means-tested scholarships; and quota systems could be
used to ensure equitable selection of students.[65]
Physical access
10.34
Physical access to schools is difficult for children in rural and remote
villages and in the outer islands, making the traditional delivery of education
unviable.[66]
With regard to secondary education, the World Bank noted that 'most secondary
schools are in urban areas [and] outer island students face expenses for travel
and boarding away from home'.[67]
The same applies to vocational training, where students in rural areas and
outer islands do not have ready access to organised skills development.[68]
Ms Hayward-Jones remarked:
In Melanesia it is a case of capacity and in a way geography
and logistics. In Papua New Guinea, the Solomons and even Vanuatu...the terrain
is very difficult to cover.[69]
Facilities
10.35
The physical learning environment is said to be poor in most countries,
ranging from inadequate learning materials to the lack of maintenance of school
buildings and infrastructure.[70]
10.36
Information and communication technologies (ICT) has the potential to
improve work and study opportunities through distance learning in remote
Pacific island communities. The use of ICT in schools and other educational
institutions, however, is limited.[71]
Internet and computer access levels for Pacific island primary and secondary
schools would be 'well below 10 per cent' but in urban tertiary institutes access
could be as high as 70 per cent. In general, approximately 17 per cent of the
Pacific population have access to the Internet.[72]
The problems with infrastructure noted in the previous chapters flow through to
the education sector. For example, the lack or shortage of electricity in most
of the outer islands makes it difficult to have ICT systems in place. The need
for technicians to service ICT equipment is a further complication.[73]
10.37
The Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat argued that educational
institutions 'fully comprehend' the need for ICT access in schools but the
costs for equipment, development and training, and access to services hinder
the facilitation of universal access and economic and social inclusion.[74]
It is estimated that 'an investment of some $50 million would be required for
basic development ICT in education'.[75]
Telecommunications facilitate education and learning for children in
remote Pacific island communities, for example in Nauru (image courtesy of
AusAID).
Teacher training and supply of
teachers
10.38
Inadequate literacy and numeracy skills are said to result from a number
of factors, including lack of 'ongoing professional development of teachers in
the area of literacy and numeracy'.[76]
10.39
While teacher competence is 'of crucial importance in improving student
achievement levels', the supply of qualified teachers also 'remains an issue
despite considerable attention and investment over the years'.[77]
Remote village schools, in particular, lack trained teachers and proper infrastructure,
such as classrooms and storage facilities.[78]
According to the World Bank, 'school quality on the outer islands needs special
attention', with difficulties to staff remote schools with trained teachers.[79]
Ms Hayward-Jones noted:
It is difficult to get teachers to go out to some of the
remote areas and to provide them with the right kind of housing so that they
will stay. The government’s capacity to pay teachers is often questionable.[80]
10.40
As a result, several countries employ 'under-trained teachers so as to
ensure the continuation of school programmes'.[81]
Universities also have difficulties attracting qualified staff apart from
short-term guest lecturers.[82]
Curriculum and relevance
10.41
In many island countries, the curriculum is said to lack meaningfulness
and relevancy and several countries have a limited variety of courses on offer.[83] The Pacific
Education Development Framework noted that despite efforts at redevelopment to
meet vocational and life skill needs, the school curricula 'remain largely
academic and do not fully meet the needs of all Pacific students'.[84]
The Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat noted that the secondary education system
lacks 'relevance to village life and to the country’s labour market needs'. Thus,
despite limited public sector employment opportunities, too much emphasis rests
'on the expectation of future white collar jobs or professional employment'.[85]
The ADB argued that because of its importance, training for those working in the
informal sector should be the 'top priority'.[86]
In chapter 4, the committee highlighted the importance of education for food
security and cited, for example, Fiji which called for agricultural sciences to
be incorporated in the school curricula at primary and secondary level.[87]
10.42
Many commentators and organisations, such as the ADB, drew attention to
the problem of the disjunction in school-to-work transitions.[88] Indeed, the Pacific
Education Development Framework suggested that training systems tend to operate
in isolation of labour market demand.[89]
Equally damning, the ADB study on skills in the Pacific noted that most TVET
systems in the region 'tend to operate in the dark both on skills demand and on
supply'.[90]
One study observed that courses—such as welding— are offered because staff is
on the roster, regardless of labour market demand.[91]
An ESCAP study noted the gap in skills in many Pacific island countries
suggesting that they:
...continue to rely on traditional types of training, through schools
and tertiary institutions, and expect the products of that training to fit into
contemporary labour markets. But economic structures have changed over the last
decade while skill development and training have failed to adapt.[92]
10.43
It indicated that tourism was now one of the leading sectors but
skills-training had not changed to support the development of the industry in
the region.[93]
Yet another study underscored the need to bring business education, especially
relating to entrepreneurship and innovation, into schools to orientate young
people towards business activity.[94]
For example, participants to the Solomon Islands people's survey 2008
identified the lack of business knowledge and training as a widespread problem.[95]
The Australia Pacific Islands Business Council also called for aid programs to
focus more on business development, particularly the building of business and
entrepreneurial skills.[96]
10.44
According to the ADB, the Fijian TVET authority is 'arguably one of the
best providers of trade training in the region' and was a model for other
Pacific island countries. It has developed a testing system to ensure the
standard for training. It involved employers in the review of the training
content which focuses on 'practical applications' and 'has an enterprise
ethos'.[97]
Even so, the Australia Fiji Business Council urged the Fijian Government and
aid donors to work closely with business to identify future employment needs so
that 'the education system is tuned to produce workers with the appropriate
skills and training to enable their absorption into the workforce'.[98]
10.45
Concerns have also been raised about the appropriateness of university
courses for Pacific economies and conditions. Fiji's Acting High Commissioner
to Australia noted that the courses on offer in Fiji 'do not fully meet Fiji's
manpower and workforce needs because a good number of specialised study
programmes are not available in Fiji'. These include engineering, architecture,
veterinary science, forestry, fisheries, forensic science and meteorology. He
argued that this situation created a need to recruit overseas engineers,
businesses and consultants 'at exorbitant rates' for major construction works.[99]
Standards
10.46
The Pacific 2020 background paper on employment commented on the
standards reached in technical and training institutes in the region. It noted
that there had been 'little attempt to establish minimum competency standards'
and suggested:
A regional approach to the setting and administration of
competency standards through a regional accreditation system involving
governments and business would better align training standards with the realities
and needs of regional labour markets and facilitate greater global skilled migration.[100]
10.47
Mr Edward Vrkic, Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, acknowledged the
Forum education ministers' support for 'benchmarking standards and
standardising'.[101]
Committee view
10.48
The committee believes that the training and skilling of Pacific island
people for employment in their own labour markets is of paramount importance
and strongly supports attempts to align education and training with local needs.
It notes the many and persistent calls for attention to be given to the
informal sector.
10.49
There are a number of other areas in the education systems in Pacific
island countries that require attention, including gender disparity in school
enrolments, inadequacies in services for those with disabilities, and early
childhood education. Although the committee has not dealt with them here, they
nonetheless remain important issues that should be addressed.
Funding
10.50
Finance for education in Pacific island countries comes from multiple
sources and includes 'allocations from government budgets, support from
external development partners, and funding from parents and non-government
providers'. In most Pacific island countries, 'primary education is a government
responsibility, and secondary education is predominantly church run'.[102]
For example, in PNG churches administer approximately half of the education
system.[103]
An ADB study suggested that 'Government and church collaboration is the usual
way to expand the provision of education services where public funds are scarce'.
However, while aid agencies provide 'a large part of education spending', '[m]uch
of it is not reflected in the official budget'.[104]
10.51
On average, Pacific island governments allocate approximately 17 per
cent of the budget to education.[105]
An ADB study noted that because such a large proportion of government resources
was already allocated to education and training, 'it is unlikely that they will
be able to afford to increase it'.[106]
As an example, to achieve universal basic education, PNG 'would require a
doubling of ongoing spending by 2015, and large up-front investments in school
infrastructure'.[107]
10.52
While Pacific island governments allocate significant funding towards
improving their education systems, the World Bank described the outcomes as
'weak'.[108]
In addition, there are growing demands on the education budget:
...resources for education are becoming relatively scarcer as
the education agenda expands to meet increasing populations, expansion of
compulsory education years, the broadening of education to include Early
Childhood Education (ECE) and life skills learning, and the drive for equity.[109]
10.53
Some commentators claim that universal basic education is still out of
reach for too many children under 15 years of age because more than half the
education budget is allocated to the tertiary sector.[110]
For example, the World Bank noted that tertiary education 'consumes a
disproportionate amount of education budgets' and suggested:
Given the unmet needs in primary and secondary education,
Pacific governments have the opportunity to reallocate tertiary funds, to
achieve a larger impact on their most urgent priorities.[111]
10.54
Despite this allocation, funding and resources are also issues for the
vocational and higher education systems. Many TVET institutions have inadequate
resources to carry out their functions. According to the Lowy Institute,
universities suffer from 'chronic under-funding, staff shortages and inadequate
facilities'.[112]
The ADB was of the view that infrastructure development is one of the most
'salient' needs of the Pacific islands higher education sector.[113]
Governance and administration
10.55
The problem with education in some Pacific island countries is not only
the lack of funds but also the capacity of governments to deliver education as
an essential service. Ms Hayward-Jones observed that while Pacific island
countries may well have sufficient money in the budget, 'getting it out to the
provinces and spending it on the right things [schoolbooks and attendance] is
proving to be more difficult'.[114]
According to the review of the Forum Basic Education Action Plan, all Pacific
island countries 'have major capacity gaps in their systems that are holding
them back in responding to the access, quality and equity challenges'. These
include: 'the ability and skills to efficiently manage sector resources (at
national, state, provincial and school level) including donor provided
resources'. Pacific Island countries were also deemed to have capacity
shortfalls in their ability to:
-
develop and analyse policies at sectoral and sub-sectoral level;
-
develop, manage and modify education management information systems
(EMIS);
-
develop and nurture stakeholder relationships with other
government departments, civil society, and other educational authorities; and
-
track sector performance because of a lack of fully
institutionalised monitoring and evaluation systems.[115]
10.56
PNG provides an example of some of the administrative and capacity
constraints it faces delivering an education service. For example, schools must
deal with both the provincial and national education offices and are often
forced to wait 6-12 months for a teacher to be placed on the payroll. According
to Palms Australia, issues such as the delays and frustration caused by dealing
with the bureaucracy 'are most profound for rural or isolated communities due
to unreliable communications infrastructure'.[116]
10.57
The World Bank also noted the need for governments to set up good
policies and 'well-functioning institutional structures for social service
delivery'. It suggested that a coherent policy and regulatory framework is
needed with quality assurance mechanisms such as an accreditation system.[117]
10.58
Governance issues also apply to vocational and higher education.
According to ADB, strategic planning is, in addition to infrastructure
development mentioned earlier, another of the most pressing needs of the
Pacific islands higher education sector.[118]
The Papua New Guinean TVET administration 'can be seen as dysfunctional'
according to ADB, with each authority having:
...its own board and management structures; develops its own
policies and forges its own linkages with enterprises, is responsible for some registration
and certification of training providers, and each uses different criteria in
the process.[119]
10.59
The World Bank argued that the focus should be on improving effective
resource management.[120]
In its view, future improvements in education would be related to how well
policy makers manage existing resources and how effective they are in engaging
partners outside the sector in broad governance activities. These activities
include gathering and using data, increasing transparency, decentralising
services and mobilising community participation. Also, resources and priorities
should be better aligned, tracking mechanisms improved and teacher development,
standards and curriculum reformed. For example, in most systems, teacher salaries
'represent over 90 per cent of recurrent budgets' and is an area where
efficiencies could be made.[121]
10.60
The World Bank also recognised that governance activities involve
numerous 'stakeholders inside and beyond ministries of education'. For example,
the private sector plays a role in the form of curriculum development,
mentoring and providing apprenticeship opportunities. Thus, public–private
partnerships between the government and communities and churches are important
to raise and manage additional funds. The World Bank suggested that changing
the governance structure means 'altering in some way the society-wide
frameworks within which the education system performs'.[122]
Conclusion
10.61
The education and training systems in Pacific island countries face a multitude
of challenges. In particular, governments have difficulties finding the
resources and the management skills to deliver appropriate education services
to many of their children, particularly those living in remote communities. As
a result, in many countries:
-
children in remote areas have difficulties attending school;
-
schools are poorly equipped with inadequate learning materials
and school buildings;
-
there is a chronic shortage of qualified teachers;
-
the curriculum does not meet the needs and priorities of local
communities; and
-
the vocational system is not producing graduates with the higher
level skills needed to support their economies.
10.62
In some Pacific island countries, notably PNG, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu
and Nauru, the education system is failing to the extent that school attendance
and the levels of literacy and numeracy are very poor for a significant
proportion of the population. As noted at the beginning of this chapter,
education and with it literacy and numeracy skills are the essential building
blocks of any society. By failing to achieve basic universal education, a
number of Pacific island countries are undermining their country's economic
potential and severely curtailing opportunities for their people to develop.
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