5
March 2018
PDF version [845KB]
Stephen Barber
Statistics
and Mapping Section
Executive
summary
This paper provides details of
House of Representatives by-elections, from that held for Darling Downs on 14 September
1901 to the most recent held on 16 December 2017 for Bennelong. The following
observations can be made about those by-elections:
-
there have been 151 by-elections,
an average of 3.4 per parliament
-
the average number of nominations
has grown over the years from 2.2 per by-election to 12.0 per by-election
- in only four cases was a
by-election contested by just a single candidate
- an increasing tendency has been
for governments to avoid contesting by-elections in their opponents’ safe seats
- in only ten cases have the opposition
party failed to contest a by-election
- seventy-six of the by-elections
followed the resignation of the member, 68 members died in office, there have
been six voided elections, and one MP was expelled from the House
- since 1949 resignations account
for almost two-thirds of by-elections and over half the resignations have
occurred in safe seats
- on 35 occasions the party
complexion of a seat has altered at a by-election
- five of the losses have been by
the opposition of the day
- the average two-party preferred
swing against the government of the day has been 3.8 per cent
- since 1949 the largest two-party
swing against a government occurred against Labor in Canberra in 1995. The
largest swing to a government occurred to the Coalition in McPherson in 1981.
Contents
Executive
summary
Party abbreviations
Introduction
The organisation of Commonwealth
by-elections
The reasons why by-elections have
been held
The timing of by-elections
Vacancies for which no by-election
held
By-elections where members
recontested
Number of nominations
Voter turnout
Party performance
Seats lost at by-elections
Impact upon party
Impact upon Government/Opposition
Party win/loss performance
By-elections caused by
resignation—safeness of seat
Analysing by-election swings since
1949
Average swings against governments
Two-party preferred swings,
by-elections, 1949–2017
Personal and political matters
The changing of the old guard
Future Prime Ministers
The exiting of Prime Ministers
Future Leaders of the Opposition
The exiting of Leaders of the
Opposition
Family matters
Famous entries into the House
Kicked upstairs?
A matter of treason
By-elections that caused ripples
Voided elections
Appendix 1: House of Representatives
by-elections, 1901–2017
Appendix 2: By-election results by
electoral division, 1901–2017
First past the post electoral systemPreferential voting electoral system
Appendix 3: Notes on Commonwealth
by-elections, 1901–2017
Appendix
4: By-election timing, 1901–2017Appendix 5: Sources on by-elections
in Australia
General studies
Case studies
Commonwealth
Party abbreviations
AAP |
Advance
Australia Party |
AC |
Australian
Christians |
ACons |
Australian
Conservatives |
ACP |
Australian
Cyclists Party |
ADVP |
Australian
Defence Veterans Party |
AFI |
Australians
Against Further Immigration |
AHP |
Affordable
Housing Party |
AJP |
Animal
Justice Party |
ALA |
Australian
Liberty Alliance |
ALP |
Australian
Labor Party |
ANAG |
Australian
National Action Group |
AntiSoc |
Anti-Socialist |
AP |
Australia
Party |
APP |
Australian
People’s Party |
APPG |
Australian
Pensioner Pressure Group |
AR |
Australian
Republican |
ARM |
Australian
Reform Movement |
ASP |
Australian
Shooters Party |
ASxP |
Australian
Sex Party |
Atok |
Atokist |
AusConst |
Australian
Constitutionalist |
BTA |
Bullet
Train for Australia |
CCC |
Climate
Change Coalition |
CDP |
Christian
Democratic Party |
CCE |
Conservatives
for Climate and Environment |
CEC |
Citizens
Electoral Council |
CM |
CountryMinded |
Com |
Communist
Party |
Cons |
Conservative |
Const |
Constitutionalist |
CP |
Country
Party |
CRep |
Constitutional
Republican |
CTA |
Call to
Australia |
CYA |
Australian
Country Party |
Dem |
Australian
Democrats |
DLP |
Democratic
Labor Party |
DOGS |
Council
for the Defence of Government Schools |
DSP |
Deadly
Serious Party |
EcRef |
Economic
Reform |
EFN |
Environmentalists
for Nuclear Energy |
Farmers |
Farmers’
Party |
FFP |
Family
First Party |
FishP |
The
Fishing Party |
FLP |
Federal
Labor Party |
FLR |
Family Law
Reform Party |
FP |
Future Party |
FPA |
Federal
Party of Australia |
FST |
Australia First
Party |
FT |
Free Trade |
FUT |
Science
Party |
Grn |
Greens |
Gry |
Grey Power |
GWA |
The Greens
(WA) |
HAN |
Pauline
Hanson’s One Nation |
HMP |
Help End
Marijuana Prohibition |
HPA |
Hope Party
Australia |
ICP |
Independent
Country Party |
ILab |
Independent
Labor |
ILCL |
Independent
Liberal Country League |
ILib |
Independent
Liberal |
INat |
Independent
Nationalist |
Ind |
Independent |
KAP |
Katter’s
Australian Party |
LDP |
Liberal
Democratic Party |
LFF |
Liberals
for Forests |
Lib |
Liberal
Party |
LibF |
Liberal
Forum |
LLab |
Lang Labor |
LNP |
Liberal
National Party |
LP |
Liberal
Party |
LRG |
Liberal
Reform Group |
NA |
National
Alliance |
NAP |
New
Australian Party |
Nat |
Nationalist |
NCPP |
Non-Custodial
Parents Party |
NGST |
No GST
Party |
NHP |
National
Humanitarian Party |
NLP |
Natural
Law Party |
NP |
National Party |
NSP |
National
Socialist Party |
ON |
One Nation |
ONNSW |
One Nation
NSW Division |
PCP |
Progressive
Conservative Party |
PIR |
Pirate
Party Australia |
PLP |
Progressive
Labour Party |
PORP |
Property
Owners’ Rights Party |
PP |
Progress
Party |
Prog |
Australian
Progressives |
Prot |
Protectionist |
ProtLab |
Protestant
Labor |
PUP |
Palmer
United Party |
RARI |
Reclaim
Australia: Reduce Immigration |
RPA |
Republican
Party of Australia |
RSNP |
Returned
Soldiers National Party |
RUA |
Rise Up
Australia Party |
SA |
Socialist
Alliance |
SC |
Social
Credit |
SLib |
State
Liberal |
Soc |
Socialist |
SP |
Socialist
Party of Australia |
SPA |
Secular
Party of Australia |
SPP |
Sustainable
Population Party |
ST |
Single Tax
League |
SUN |
Seniors
United Party of Australia |
SWP |
Socialist
Workers’ Party |
TA |
Taxpayers’
Association |
TAP |
The Arts
Party |
UAP |
United
Australia Party |
UM |
Uninflated
Movement |
Unite |
Unite
Australia Party |
UTG |
United
Tasmanian Group |
UWU |
Unemployed
Workers Union |
VEF |
Voluntary
Euthanasia Party |
VFU |
Victorian
Farmers’ Union |
VOTE |
Voice of
the Elderly |
21CA |
21st
Century Party |
Note: all tables and charts have been compiled by
the Parliamentary Library.
Introduction
This Research Paper updates an earlier Parliamentary Library
Research paper and details the 151 by-elections for the House of Representatives
held to date, including some of the factors involved in their being held.[1]
It also discusses relevant factors such as the timing of
by-elections, the number of nominations, the voter turnout and party
performance over the years, and the swings that have occurred.
The paper concludes with a general discussion of some of the
personal and political aspects of the by-elections.
The
organisation of Commonwealth by-elections
By-elections are held to fill vacancies in the House of
Representatives resulting from the death, resignation, absence without leave,
expulsion, disqualification or ineligibility of a member.
The first by-election was held in the Queensland electorate
of Darling Downs, on 14 September 1901, barely four months after the opening of
the new Commonwealth Parliament. The by-election followed the death of the
sitting member, William Groom. The most recent by-election was held in the
electorate of Bennelong (NSW) on 16 December 2017 following the resignation of
the sitting member, John Alexander.
The reasons why by-elections
have been held
Of the 151 by-elections, 68 (45.0 per cent) have occurred
because of the death of the member, 76 (50.3 per cent) as the result of the
resignation of the member, six (4.0 per cent) because of voided elections, and
one (0.7 per cent) because of the expulsion of the member for Kalgoorlie from
the House in 1920.
Over time, the reasons for by-elections have altered quite
markedly:
-
from 1901 to 1979, 61.5 per cent
of all by-elections were brought about by death
- contrast, since 1980, 87.2 per
cent of all by-elections have been brought about by resignation.
Vacancies brought about by resignation and death
Years |
Vacancy due to death
(%) |
Vacancy due to resignation
(%) |
Other
(%) |
1901–1979 |
61.5 |
33.7 |
4.8 |
Since 1980 |
8.5 |
87.2 |
4.3 |
The following graph further illustrates the changing pattern
in the reasons causing by-elections.
Reason for by-election, by
decade
One factor contributing to this changing pattern is that
members today enter the House of Representatives at a generally younger age
than used to be the case. Of the 41 parliaments to 2005, the second quarter’s
intake (1929–1951) was the oldest, averaging 48.3 years per new member. By
contrast, the fourth quarter’s intake (1977–2005) was the youngest at 42.2
years per new member.[2]
[3]
Another factor is the greater preparedness of members to leave Parliament—the
cause of 87.2 per cent of by-elections since 1980—often to pursue another
career. This has been aided by a third factor, namely the general increase in
longevity of Australians brought about by, among other things, better health
care.[4]
The timing
of by-elections
Section 33 of the Australian Constitution confers on
the Speaker of the House of Representatives the power to issue a writ for the
election of a new member.[5]
The Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918–Part XIII specifies that the
election (polling day) must be held between 33 and 58 days from the date the
writ is issued.[6]
There is no prescribed time period within which a
by-election writ must be issued and, in fact, there is no accepted view as to
the period that should elapse between vacancy and polling day.
Perhaps surprisingly, this has
not become a matter of any long-term political debate, allowing governments a
great deal of freedom in the setting of by-election dates. The length of time
from a vacancy until polling day has, therefore, varied considerably, with the
maximum number of days being the 82 days for Moreton in 1983, and the minimum
being the 17 days for East Sydney in 1903.[7]
The total elapsed time from vacancy to election has increased since 1901.
Between 1901 and 1949, the average was 40.3 days, whereas during the period
1949 to 2017 the average has been 51.4 days. The average figure for all
by-elections has been 47.1 days.
Ideally, by-elections are held as early as possible after a
seat becomes vacant, ‘so that the electors are not left without representation
any longer than is necessary’.[8]
In fact, such a consideration is occasionally pushed aside by short-term
political factors. On 22 October 1982 the Member for Flinders, Phillip Lynch,
resigned his seat. The Speaker fixed 4 December as the date for a by-election,
but also declared that there would be a delay of almost three weeks before the
writs for the by-election would be issued. According to Anne Summers, this gave
the Fraser Government the option of calling a general election for 4 or 11
December.[9]
The by-election could, therefore, have been pushed aside; although a double
dissolution election was eventually held on 5 March 1983.
In the cases of the 15 by-elections held during 2000–2017,
the delay between the date of the seat becoming vacant[10]
and the date of the issuing of the writ varied considerably. The 45 days for Griffith
and the 40 days for Gippsland contrasted with the virtually instantaneous
issuing of writs for by-elections in Ryan, Lyne, North Sydney, New England and
Bennelong.
By-elections, 2000–2017
Division |
Held by |
Date of vacancy |
Date of writ |
Delay in issuing writ |
Elapsed time from vacancy to
by-election |
Isaacs (Vic) |
ALP |
14.06.00 |
30.06.00 |
16 days |
59 days |
Ryan (Qld) |
LP |
05.02.01 |
09.02.01 |
4 days |
40 days |
Aston (Vic) |
LP |
24.04.01 |
01.06.01 |
38 days |
81 days |
Cunningham (NSW) |
ALP |
16.08.02 |
16.09.02 |
31 days |
64 days |
Werriwa (NSW) |
ALP |
21.01.05 |
14.02.05 |
24 days |
57 days |
Gippsland (Vic) |
LP |
09.04.08 |
19.05.08 |
40 days |
80 days |
Lyne (NSW) |
LP |
30.07.08 |
04.08.09 |
5 days |
38 days |
Mayo (SA) |
LP |
14.07.08 |
04.08.09 |
21 days |
54 days |
Bradfield (NSW) |
LP |
19.10.09 |
30.10.09 |
11 days |
47 days |
Higgins (Vic) |
LP |
19.10.09 |
30.10.09 |
11 days |
47 days |
Griffith (Qld) |
ALP |
22.11.13 |
06.01.14 |
45 days |
78 days |
Canning (WA) |
LP |
21.07.15 |
17.08.15 |
27 days |
60 days |
North Sydney (NSW) |
LP |
23.10.15 |
26.10.15 |
3 days |
43 days |
New England (NSW) |
NP |
27.10.17 |
27.10.17 |
0 days |
36 days |
Bennelong (NSW) |
LP |
11.11.17 |
13.11.17 |
2 days |
35 days |
The variation allowed in regard to
by-election dates is thus an anomaly in an electoral system that is generally
highly regulated.
Appendix 4 provides details of the timing of all
by-elections held between September 1901 and December 2017. It also shows the
number of days elapsed between the seat becoming vacant and the by-election
date, the number of days elapsed since the previous general election, and the
number of days between the by-election and the next general election.
Vacancies
for which no by-election held
There have been 20 occasions when the Speaker has, in fact,
declined to issue such a writ for a by-election due to a pending general
election. The longest period a seat has been without a member prior to a
general election was 128 days in the case of Hindmarsh in 1909–10. The shortest
period was the 39 days between 13 August 1940, when three MPs were killed in a
plane crash, and the election of 21 September 1940.
The situation regarding the last of these occasions—Wills,
1992–93—was the result of the by-election held in November 1992 subsequently
being voided by the Court of Disputed Returns. The successful candidate, Phil
Cleary, was found to be in breach of Section 44(iv) of the Constitution and the
Labor and Liberal candidates were found ineligible under Section 44(i).
By-elections
where members recontested
There have been nine occasions where the previous member has
recontested in a by-election. Of these, five members have been successful in
retaining their seat.
The successful members were in the seats: East Sydney 1903,
Echuca 1907, Lindsay 1996, New England 2017 and Bennelong 2017.
The unsuccessful recontests were in: Melbourne 1904,
Riverina 1904, Ballaarat 1920 and Kalgoorlie 1920.
Vacancies for which no by-election was held, 1901–2017
Division |
Vacant |
Next
election |
Days |
Hunter
(NSW) |
30.09.03 |
16.12.03 |
77 |
Indi (Vic) |
12.10.06 |
12.12.06 |
61 |
Northern
Melbourne (Vic) |
13.10.06 |
12.12.06 |
60 |
Hindmarsh
(SA) |
06.12.09 |
13.04.10 |
128 |
East
Sydney (NSW) |
24.12.09 |
13.04.10 |
110 |
West
Sydney (NSW) |
06.09.28 |
17.11.28 |
72 |
Wimmera
(Vic) |
14.10.31 |
19.12.31 |
66 |
Martin
(NSW) |
05.06.34 |
15.09.34 |
102 |
Ballaarat
(Vic) |
31.07.34 |
15.09.34 |
46 |
Werriwa
(NSW) |
02.08.34 |
15.09.34 |
44 |
Henty
(Vic) |
13.08.40 |
21.09.40 |
39 |
Flinders
(Vic) |
13.08.40 |
21.09.40 |
39 |
Corangamite
(Vic) |
13.08.40 |
21.09.40 |
39 |
West
Sydney (NSW) |
14.08.46 |
28.09.46 |
45 |
Hindmarsh
(SA) |
14.08.46 |
28.09.46 |
45 |
McMillan
(Vic) |
14.10.55 |
10.12.55 |
57 |
Leichhardt
(Qld) |
11.10.58 |
22.11.58 |
42 |
Warringah
(NSW) |
03.08.66 |
26.11.66 |
110 |
Bonython
(SA) |
30.09.77 |
10.12.77 |
71 |
Wills
(Vic) |
25.11.92 |
13.03.93 |
108 |
Number
of nominations
The 151 by-elections have been contested by an average of 5.1
candidates. Over the years, however, there has been a steady increase in the
number of nominations.
In the 24 first-past-the-post cases between 1901 and October
1918 the average number of nominations was 2.2 per contest.
In the following 127 preferential voting cases there has
been an average of 5.7 nominations per by-election:
-
from the introduction of
preferential voting in December 1918 to the end of the 1960s there was an
average of 3.7 nominations per by-election
-
the 1970s and 1980s saw the first
of two significant increases in candidate numbers, with 6.2 candidates per
by-election over these decades
-
this was exceeded during the
1990s, with the average climbing to 8.1 candidates per contest
-
since 2000 a further climb to 12.0
candidates per by-election has occurred.
The record number of nominations has occurred twice in by-elections:
Wills (Vic) in 1992 and Bradfield (NSW) in 2009. In the 1992 Wills by-election
22 nominations were received to fill the seat vacated by former Prime Minister
Hawke. The field of 22 candidates that contested the 2009 Bradfield by-election
was inflated due to the presence of nine Christian Democratic Party candidates.
The 2017 New England by-election had 17 nominations, the third highest on
record.
Candidates per by-election
Years |
By-elections
|
Average number of
candidates
|
Largest number of
candidates
|
1901–2017 |
151 |
5.1 |
22 (2 cases) |
1901–1918 (First-past-the-post) |
24 |
2.2 |
4 (Tasmania 1902) |
1918–2017 (Preferential voting) |
127 |
5.7 |
22 (2 cases) |
Preferential voting |
|
|
|
1918–1929 |
15 |
3.1 |
5 (3 cases) |
1930–1939 |
12 |
3.7 |
6 (Wilmot 1939) |
1940–1949 |
7 |
4.0 |
7 (Wimmera 1946) |
1950–1959 |
16 |
3.7 |
6 (3 cases) |
1960–1969 |
22 |
3.9 |
5 (8 cases) |
1970–1979 |
8 |
6.5 |
12 (Parramatta 1973) |
1980–1989 |
18 |
6.1 |
12 (Lowe 1982) |
1990–1999 |
14 |
8.1 |
22 (Wills 1992) |
2000–2009 |
10 |
11.5
|
22 (Bradfield 2009) |
Since 2010 |
5 |
13.0 |
17 (New England 2017) |
In only four cases, or 2.6 per
cent, was a by-election contested by just a single candidate: Kalgoorlie 1913,
Dalley 1915, Wide Bay 1928 and Cunningham 1956.
In recent years there has been a tendency for governments to
avoid contesting by-elections in their opponents’ safe seats. Since 1990 the
incumbent government has failed to contest 15 of the 29 by-elections held. In
all cases bar one this has meant an easy win to the party holding the seat. In
the case of Cunningham in 2002, however, the absence of a Liberal candidate
helped the Australian Greens candidate win the seat from the ALP.[11]
By contrast, until the 2015 by-election in North Sydney, the
official Opposition had contested every by-election from Dalley in 1953. Over
the whole period the Opposition has failed to contest ten, or 6.6 per cent, of
by-elections: Darling Downs 1901, Melbourne 1904, Echuca 1907, Adelaide 1908, Dalley
1915, Echuca 1919, Wide Bay 1928, Balaclava 1929, Bradfield 1952 and North
Sydney 2015.
Voter turnout[12]
During the period of voluntary voting (1901–1924) the
average turnout for by-elections was just 56.7 per cent. The lowest figure was
15.1 per cent in East Sydney in 1903. Since the introduction of compulsory voting
in 1924 the average by-election turnout figure has been 87.3 per cent. This
contrasts with a 94.4 per cent turnout in general elections over that period.
During the compulsory voting years there has been a slight
fall in the by-election turnout figure. Prior to 1970 the turnout in 62
by-elections was 88.5 per cent; the turnout for the 55 by-elections since 1970
has been 86.1 per cent. The lowest turnout figure over the compulsory voting
period has been 69.5 per cent in Wentworth in 1981. Remarkably, there have been
three by-elections in this electorate (1956, 1981 and 1995) and the average
turnout has been only 75.9 per cent.
Party performance
Seats lost
at by-elections
In only 35 of the 151 by-elections (23.2 per cent) has a
seat altered its party status.
Seats lost at by-elections, 1901–2017
Division |
Government |
Sitting party |
Winning party |
Melbourne (Vic) 1904 |
Prot |
Prot |
ALP |
Riverina (NSW) 1904 |
ALP |
FT |
Prot |
Adelaide (SA) 1908 |
Prot |
Prot |
ALP |
Boothby (SA) 1911 |
ALP |
ALP |
Lib |
Grampians (Vic) 1915 |
ALP |
ALP |
Lib |
Wide Bay (Qld) 1915 |
ALP |
ALP |
Lib |
Swan (WA) 1918 |
Nat |
Nat |
ALP |
Corangamite (Vic) 1918 |
Nat |
Nat |
VFU |
Echuca (Vic) 1919 |
Nat |
Nat |
VFU |
Ballaarat (Vic) 1920 |
Nat |
Nat |
ALP |
Kalgoorlie (WA) 1920 |
Nat |
ALP |
Nat |
Maranoa (Qld) 1921 |
Nat |
ALP |
CP |
Wide Bay (Qld) 1928 |
Nat |
Nat |
CP |
Franklin (Tas) 1929 |
ALP |
Ind |
ALP |
Parkes (NSW) 1931 |
ALP |
ALP |
Nat |
East Sydney (NSW) 1932 |
UAP |
UAP |
LLab |
Darling Downs (Qld) 1936 |
UAP |
UAP |
CP |
Gwydir (NSW) 1937 |
UAP/CP |
CP |
ALP |
Wakefield (SA) 1938 |
UAP/CP |
UAP |
ALP |
Wilmot (Tas) 1939 |
UAP/CP |
UAP |
ALP |
Corio (Vic) 1940 |
UAP |
UAP |
ALP |
Henty (Vic) 1946 |
ALP |
Ind |
LP |
Flinders (Vic) 1952 |
LP/CP |
LP |
ALP |
Calare (NSW) 1960 |
LP/CP |
LP |
CP |
Dawson (Qld) 1966 |
LP/CP |
CP |
ALP |
Corio (Vic) 1967 |
LP/CP |
LP |
ALP |
Bass (Tas) 1975 |
ALP |
ALP |
LP |
Lowe (NSW) 1982 |
LP/NP |
LP |
ALP |
Adelaide (SA) 1988 |
ALP |
ALP |
LP |
Groom (Qld) 1988 |
ALP |
NP |
LP |
Wills (Vic) 1992 |
ALP |
ALP |
Ind |
Canberra (ACT) 1995 |
ALP |
ALP |
LP |
Ryan (Qld) 2001 |
LP/NP |
LP |
ALP |
Cunningham (NSW) 2002 |
LP/NP |
ALP |
Grn |
Lyne (NSW) 2008 |
ALP |
NP |
Ind |
Note: By the time of the Grampians by-election of 1917, the
Liberal Party had been subsumed by the Nationalist Party. This by-election is,
therefore, not included as an occasion when the seat changed party hands
Impact upon
party
-
twenty-seven (17.9 per cent)
by-elections have been lost by a major party to another major party.
- four (2.6 per cent) have been lost
by a major party to a minor party (Corangamite 1918, Echuca 1919, East Sydney
1932 and Cunningham 2002)
- two (1.3 per cent) have been lost
by a major party to an independent (Wills 1992 and Lyne 2008)
- two (1.3 per cent) previously held
by independents were won by a major party (Franklin 1929 and Henty 1946).
Impact
upon Government/Opposition
- in 24 by-elections (15.9 per cent)
the seat has been lost by the government of the day
- five seats (3.3 per cent) have
been lost by the opposition of the day (Riverina 1904, Kalgoorlie 1920, Maranoa
1921, Cunningham 2002 and Lyne 2008)
- four seats (2.6 per cent) have
been lost by one Coalition partner to another (Wide Bay 1928, Darling Downs
1936, Calare 1960 and Groom 1988). Note that the losses of Corangamite in 1918
and Echuca in 1919 by the Nationalist Party were both to the Victorian Farmers
Union which shortly thereafter formed the Country Party. However, as there was
no formal anti-Labor coalition at this time, these are not included here
- two seats (1.3 per cent) were won
from Independents, one by the government of the day (Franklin 1929) and one by
the opposition (Henty 1946).
Party
win/loss performance
The table below shows, over the long haul, the major
non-Labor parties of the day have not done quite as well as their rivals in
terms of winning seats from other parties.
Party win/loss performance at by-elections, 1901–2017
Party |
Seats gained |
Seats lost |
ALP |
14 |
11 |
Major non-Labor parties* |
11 |
18 |
CP/NP |
4 |
4 |
Other |
6 |
2 |
Total |
35 |
35 |
* These figures include
Riverina 1904, won by the Protectionists from the Free Traders.
On 11 of the 35 occasions where a seat has changed party
hands at a by-election (Boothby 1911, Swan 1918, Kalgoorlie 1920, Franklin
1929, Wakefield 1938, Wilmot 1939, Flinders 1952, Adelaide 1988, Canberra 1995,
Ryan 2001 and Cunningham 2002), the party that won the seat at the by-election
lost the seat at the next general election.
By-elections
caused by resignation—safeness of seat
The fact that relatively few seats
have changed party hands in by-elections is probably due more to the propensity
for by-elections to occur in safer seats, rather than any other factor.
Political parties and individual members are only too aware of the possible
political consequences of losing a seat at a by-election, and thus try to
ensure that by-elections caused by resignation occur only in relatively safe
seats. For example, since 1949, of the 61 by-elections that were caused by the
resignation of the sitting member, only 11 have been in marginal seats (that
is, seats requiring a swing of less than six per cent to change hands). By far
the largest number of by-elections, 33, has occurred in safe seats (that is, seats
requiring a swing of over ten per cent to change hands).
By-elections caused by resignation—safeness of seat, 1949–2017
|
Number |
Percentage |
Marginal |
11 |
18.0 |
Fairly Safe |
17 |
27.9 |
Safe |
33 |
54.1 |
Total |
61 |
100.0 |
Analysing
by-election swings since 1949
Apart from a party’s success or defeat in a by-election, the
most important aspect of a by-election is the swing that takes place.
Conventional wisdom holds that there is usually a swing against the government
of the day at a by-election. The success or otherwise of a government, opposition,
or party leader at the by-election is often measured by the size of the swing
in comparison with the average swing recorded in past by-elections. However,
by-elections occur in varied and disparate electoral divisions, with different
numbers and mixes of candidates and with a variety of local, state and national
issues involved. It could, therefore, be argued that, given the variety of
factors involved, there is no 'normal' by-election swing. By-elections are held
in such varying circumstances that none can be regarded as typical, and it is
generally agreed that any swing that occurs is usually explained by the special
factors pertaining to each by-election.[13]
By-election swings can be calculated by comparing the first
preference and two-party preferred votes received by the various parties at the
by-election with the votes at the previous general election. The two-party
preferred swing is more commonly used as it overcomes some of the difficulties
inherent in using first preference swings. First preference swings can be
affected by the number and nature of candidates and parties contesting the
by-election when compared with the previous general election.
Average first preference and two-party preferred vote swings
for by-elections held between 1949 and December 2017 are given below.[14]
Swings cannot be calculated where one of the major parties (that is, ALP or
LP/NP Coalition) did not stand a candidate at the by-election or the preceding
general election, or where the division was uncontested at the by-election or
the preceding general election.
The average two-party preferred swing against the government
of the day in all by-elections held during the period 1949 to 2017 was 3.8 per
cent. The swing against ALP governments (5.5 per cent) was somewhat higher than
the swing against LP/NP Coalition governments (3.2 per cent) while the swing
against the government of the day in government-held seats was 4.7 per cent.
The average two-party preferred swing in by-elections caused by the death of
the sitting member was just over half the swing in by-elections caused by the
resignation of the member.
Average
swings against governments
Two-party preferred swings at by-elections during the period
have varied from an anti-government swing of 16.1 per cent in Canberra in 1995
to a swing of 16.2 per cent to the government in McPherson in 1981. The largest
swing against an ALP Government was the Canberra figure, while the largest
swing against a LP/(CP)NP Coalition Government was achieved when Gough Whitlam
won Werriwa in 1952 with a 12.4 per cent swing.
Two-party preferred swings to the government of the day are
a rare event in by-elections, with only 14 being recorded during the period.
The largest swing to an ALP Government was in Wills in 1992 with a 5.9 per cent
swing (although the ALP lost the seat to an independent candidate, Phil Cleary[15])
while the largest swing to a LP/NP Coalition Government was in McPherson, referred
to above.
As the number of candidates contesting a by-election is
generally larger than the number contesting the previous general election,
first preference swings against the government tend to be higher than two-party
preferred swings.
Average swings against governments in by-elections, 1949–2017
|
First
preference
per cent |
Two-party
preferred
per cent |
All by-elections |
5.5 |
3.8 |
Government held seats |
6.3 |
4.7 |
LP/NP Governments |
4.4 |
3.2 |
ALP Governments |
8.2 |
5.5 |
By-elections caused by death |
3.6 |
2.6 |
By-elections caused by resignation |
7.1 |
4.9 |
Two-party preferred swings, by-elections, 1949–2017
ALP Government |
|
LP/NP Government |
Division |
Swing (%) |
|
Division |
Swing (%) |
Parramatta 1973 |
-6.6 |
|
Balaclava 1951 |
-3.4 |
Bass 1975 |
-14.6 |
|
Macquarie 1951 |
+0.4 |
Wannon 1983 |
-1.5 |
|
Lyne 1952 |
-8.8 |
Bruce 1983 |
-3.8 |
|
Flinders 1952 |
-11.0 |
Moreton 1983 |
-1.2 |
|
Werriwa 1952 |
-12.4 |
Corangamite 1984 |
-1.3 |
|
Bradfield 1952 |
n.a. |
Hughes 1984 |
-5.0 |
|
Dalley 1953 |
n.a. |
Richmond 1984 |
+0.5 |
|
Corangamite 1953 |
-6.5 |
Scullin 1986 |
-4.4 |
|
Lang 1953 |
-2.5 |
Adelaide 1988 |
-8.4 |
|
Gwydir 1953 |
-0.4 |
Port Adelaide 1988 |
-11.1 |
|
Cook 1955 |
n.a. |
Groom 1988 |
-5.2 |
|
Cunningham 1956 |
n.a. |
Oxley 1988 |
-11.8 |
|
Barker 1956 |
-9.9 |
Gwydir 1989 |
n.a. |
|
Wentworth 1956 |
n.a. |
Menzies 1991 |
n.a. |
|
Richmond 1957 |
n.a. |
Wills 1992 |
+5.9 |
|
Parramatta 1958 |
-6.4 |
Werriwa 1994 |
-6.3 |
|
Hunter 1960 |
n.a. |
Fremantle 1994 |
+1.0 |
|
La Trobe 1960 |
-7.5 |
Bonython 1994 |
-7.8 |
|
Balaclava 1960 |
-4.6 |
Mackellar 1994 |
n.a. |
|
Bendigo 1960 |
+0.1 |
Warringah 1994 |
n.a. |
|
Calare 1960 |
+1.0 |
Kooyong 1994 |
n.a. |
|
Higinbotham 1960 |
-9.2 |
Canberra 1995 |
-16.1 |
|
Batman 1962 |
n.a. |
Wentworth 1995 |
n.a. |
|
Grey 1963 |
+4.9 |
Gippsland 2008 |
-6.1 |
|
East Sydney 1963 |
n.a. |
Lyne 2008 |
n.a. |
|
Denison 1964 |
-1.9 |
Mayo 2008 |
n.a. |
|
Angas 1964 |
-2.1 |
Bradfield 2009 |
n.a. |
|
Parramatta 1964 |
-3.0 |
Higgins 2009 |
n.a. |
|
Robertson 1964 |
-1.4 |
|
|
|
Riverina 1965 |
-0.9 |
|
|
|
Dawson 1966 |
-11.9 |
|
|
|
Kooyong 1966 |
-3.8 |
|
|
|
Corio 1967 |
-11.1 |
|
|
|
Capricornia 1967 |
+1.5 |
|
|
|
Higgins 1968 |
-0.3 |
|
|
|
Curtin 1969 |
-7.1 |
|
|
|
Bendigo 1969 |
+2.1 |
|
|
|
Gwydir 1969 |
-7.7 |
|
|
|
Australian Capital Territory 1970 |
+13.8 |
|
|
|
Chisholm 1970 |
-2.8 |
|
|
|
Murray 1971 |
-0.4 |
|
|
|
Cunningham 1977 |
-0.3 |
|
|
|
Werriwa 1978 |
-11.3 |
|
|
|
Grayndler 1979 |
-6.9 |
|
|
|
Boothby 1981 |
-1.2 |
|
|
|
Curtin 1981 |
-7.5 |
|
|
|
McPherson 1981 |
+16.2 |
|
|
|
Wentworth 1981 |
-6.2 |
|
|
|
Lowe 1982 |
-8.5 |
|
|
|
Flinders 1982 |
-3.3 |
|
|
|
Blaxland 1996 |
n.a. |
|
|
|
Lindsay 1996 |
+5.0 |
|
|
|
Fraser 1997 |
n.a. |
|
|
|
Holt 1999 |
n.a. |
|
|
|
Isaacs 2000 |
n.a. |
|
|
|
Ryan 2001 |
-9.7 |
|
|
|
Aston 2001 |
-3.7 |
|
|
|
Cunningham 2002 |
n.a. |
|
|
|
Werriwa 2005 |
n.a. |
|
|
|
Griffith 2014 |
+1.3 |
|
|
|
Canning 2015 |
-6.6 |
|
|
|
North Sydney 2015 |
n.a. |
|
|
|
New England 2017 |
7.2 |
|
|
|
Bennelong 2017 |
-4.8 |
n.a. not applicable |
Personal and political matters
A stark listing of 151 electoral
contests can disguise the fact that many of them involved noteworthy personal
and political matters that are part of Australia’s political history.[16]
Some of these are referred to below.
The changing of the old guard
A number of members were senior politicians at state level
before they entered the federal Parliament, with this latter service being the
swan-song for a number of them:
- the death on 8 August 1901 of
William Groom (Darling Downs 1901), the only convict to enter the Parliament, caused
the first Commonwealth by-election to be held less than six months after the
opening of Parliament
- three Constitution-drafters died
in the first decade after Federation, prompting by-elections: Edward Braddon
(Wilmot 1904), Charles Cameron Kingston (Adelaide 1908) and Frederick Holder
(Wakefield 1909). By contrast, John Forrest (Swan 1918), had enjoyed a much
longer Commonwealth career, which included several ministries, with four
periods as treasurer.
Future Prime Ministers
Seven future Prime Ministers entered the House of
Representatives via by-elections. For Stanley Melbourne Bruce (Flinders 1918),
Harold Holt (Fawkner 1935), Arthur Fadden (Darling Downs 1936), Gough Whitlam
(Werriwa 1952) and Tony Abbott (Warringah 1994) this saw their entry into
Parliament for the first time. James Scullin (Yarra 1922) had already served a
term during 1910–1913, while John Gorton (Higgins 1968) had recently retired
from the Senate.
The exiting of Prime Ministers
The exiting from Parliament of 16 of the 29 MPs who have
held the office of Prime Minister has been the trigger for a by-election:
- in two cases (Wilmot 1939 and
Fremantle 1945) the by-election followed the death of the Prime Minister while
in office—Joe Lyons and John Curtin, respectively
- the by-election in Higgins in 1968
was caused by the disappearance, while swimming, of Prime Minister Harold Holt
- Ben Chifley (Macquarie 1951) and
William ‘Billy’ Hughes (Bradfield 1952) remained in Parliament after losing
office, and both died while still MPs
- some early Prime Ministers
resigned from Parliament to assume other positions. Andrew Fisher (Wide Bay
1915) and Joseph Cook (Parramatta 1921) both became Australian High
Commissioner in London. Stanley Melbourne Bruce had lost his seat in 1929,
returned to the House in 1931, and left Parliament for good when he was
appointed as Resident Minister in London (Flinders 1933)
- since the departure of Robert Menzies
(Kooyong 1966) only three former Prime Ministers have not caused a by-election
by their departure from the House of Representatives—John Gorton (who
unsuccessfully stood as an independent for the Senate in 1975), John Howard
(who lost his seat in 2007) and Julia Gillard (who retired just prior to the
2013 election). The exceptional circumstances surrounding Harold Holt (Higgins
1968) is mentioned above. John McEwen (Murray 1971), William McMahon (Lowe
1982) and Gough Whitlam (Werriwa 1978) all remained in Parliament for a time
after ceasing to be Prime Minister before resigning from the House. By
contrast, Malcolm Fraser (Wannon 1983), Bob Hawke (Wills 1992), Paul Keating (Blaxland
1996) and, most recently, Kevin Rudd (Griffith 2014) all resigned their seats
very soon after their loss of office. Kevin Rudd’s resignation came after his
loss of office for the second time.
Future Leaders of the
Opposition
Seven future leaders of the Opposition have been elected to
the House of Representatives at by-elections: Stanley Melbourne Bruce (Flinders
1918), James Scullin (Yarra 1922), Arthur Fadden (Darling Downs 1936), Gough
Whitlam (Werriwa 1952) and Tony Abbott (Warringah 1994), who all went on to
become Prime Minister, and Andrew Peacock (Kooyong 1966) and Mark Latham
(Werriwa 1994).
The exiting of Leaders of the Opposition
Of the sixteen Leaders of the Opposition who have not become
Prime Minister, the passing from Parliament of eight has caused a by-election:
- Frank Tudor (Yarra 1922) died in
office
- Herbert Vere Evatt (Hunter 1960),
Billy Snedden (Bruce 1983), Bill Hayden (Oxley 1988), Andrew Peacock (Kooyong
1994), John Hewson (Wentworth 1995), Mark Latham (Werriwa 2005) and Brendan
Nelson (Bradfield 2009) all left Parliament between general elections.
Family matters
Many retiring MPs have been replaced by family members. In
four by-elections such a generational transfer has been from father to son:
- three were caused by
death—Littleton Groom replaced William Groom (Darling Downs 1901), Bernard
Corser replaced Edward Corser (Wide Bay 1928) and David Oliver Watkins replaced
David Watkins (Newcastle 1935)
- the fourth father to son
replacement was when Harry Jenkins senior became Ambassador to Spain in 1986.
He was replaced by Harry Jenkins junior (Scullin 1986).
The retirements of both Alexander
Downer senior (Angas 1964) and Alexander Downer junior (Mayo 2008) were both
the occasion for a by-election to be held.
In two cases the family transfer
has been from uncle to nephew:
- Herbert Pratten to Frederick
Pratten (Martin 1928) and David Riordan to William Riordan (Kennedy 1936).
Famous entries into the House
Some MPs have achieved a national prominence prior to their
election to the House of Representatives via a by-election:
- William Spence (Darwin 1917) had
been a co-founder and long-time President of the Australian Workers' Union
- successive Queensland Labor
Premiers, Thomas Joseph Ryan (1915–1919) and Edward Theodore (1919–1925)
entered the House of Representatives as MPs for New South Wales seats—Ryan in
1921 for West Sydney, and Theodore for Dalley in 1925
- Archie Grenfell Price (Boothby
1941), Master of St Mark's College, University of Adelaide, was a noted
Australian geographer
- Garfield Barwick KC (Parramatta
1958) was a leading Australian barrister
- John Gorton (Higgins 1968), former
prominent member of the Senate, entered the House following his replacement of
Harold Holt as Prime Minister
- Steele Hall (Boothby 1981) had
been Premier of South Australia 1968–1970, as well as a Senator for South
Australia
- Carmen Lawrence (Fremantle 1994)
had been Premier of Western Australia 1990–1993. Lawrence's success was the
first by-election victory by a woman candidate.
Kicked upstairs?
Many MPs have been appointed to prominent positions, thus
ending their parliamentary careers. Some have seen this as an ideal way in
which to leave the political hurly-burly, while for others there has been a
suggestion that this was a means to push a potential leadership contender out
of the picture:
- by-elections were caused when Paul
Hasluck (Curtin 1969) and Bill Hayden (Oxley 1988) accepted the office of
Governor-General
- Charles Abbott (Gwydir 1937) and
Roger Dean (Robertson 1964) were both appointed Administrator of the Northern
Territory, while Alex Wilson (Wimmera 1946) was appointed Administrator of
Norfolk Island
- some sudden departures have been
caused by appointment to the judiciary. Edward McTiernan (Parkes 1931) and
Garfield Barwick (Parramatta 1964) joined the High Court. Supreme Court
appointments have also been made: William Irvine (Flinders 1918) in Victoria,
Herbert Vere Evatt (Hunter 1960) in New South Wales, and Percy Joske (Balaclava
1960) in the Australian Capital Territory. Bob Ellicott (Wentworth 1981) was
appointed to the Federal Court, while Nigel Bowen (Parramatta 1973) joined the
New South Wales Court of Appeal
- by far the most-used diplomatic
position for appointments of former MPs has been the High Commissioner position
in London, with the appointment of eight former members forcing by-elections.
Former Prime Ministers Fisher (Wide Bay 1915) and Cook (Parramatta 1921) began
the list, followed by Granville Ryrie (Warringah 1927), Thomas White (Balaclava
1951), Eli James Harrison (Wentworth 1956), Alexander Downer senior (Angas
1964), Vic Garland (Curtin 1981) and Neal Blewett (Bonython 1994)
- various other members have accepted
ambassadorships and other high commissions: Richard Casey (Corio 1940) and
Howard Beale (Parramatta 1958) Ambassadors to the USA, Hugh Roberton (Riverina
1965) Ambassador to Ireland, Hubert Opperman (Corio 1967) High Commissioner to
Malta, Lance Barnard (Bass 1975) Ambassador to Norway, Finland and Sweden, Les
Johnson (Hughes 1984) High Commissioner to New Zealand, Harry Jenkins senior
(Scullin 1986) Ambassador to Spain and Brendan Nelson (Bradfield 2009) Ambassador
to Belgium, Luxembourg and the European Union
- other unusual official
appointments include Archibald Ian Allan (Gwydir 1969) to the Secretary-Generalship
of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, Alexander Downer junior (Mayo 2008)
moved to the position of United Nations Special Envoy for Cyprus, and Brendan
Nelson (Bradfield 2009) to the positions of Representative to the North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation and Special Representative to the World Health
Organisation (in conjunction with his ambassadorship).
A matter of treason
On 7 November 1920 Hugh Mahon chaired a public meeting in
Melbourne sponsored by the Irish Ireland League and, in a speech attacking the
British presence in Ireland, spoke of ‘this bloody and accursed Empire’. His
expulsion from the House of Representatives four days later for his ‘seditious
and disloyal utterances’ was due to the House finding that he had been ‘guilty
of conduct unfitting him to remain a member of this House’. Mahon's is the only
expulsion to have occurred from the Parliament, and it forced a by-election
(Kalgoorlie 1920) which he contested but lost.[17]
The House of Representatives lost the power to expel members with the passage
of the Parliamentary Privileges Act 1987. [18]
By-elections that caused ripples
Occasionally by-elections can be seen as having an
importance beyond the immediate contest to fill a vacancy in the House of
Representatives.
Some were a sign of things to come electorally:
- the by-election (Bass 1975) to
replace Deputy Prime Minister Lance Barnard gave a very clear indication of the
decline in popularity of the Whitlam Government that was confirmed in the
December 1975 election[19]
- the by-election to replace former
Hawke and Keating Minister, Ros Kelly (Canberra 1995), presaged the Keating
Government's defeat in the March 1996 election.[20]
Other by-elections have had a different type of political
impact:
-
in late 1939, coalition negotiations
between the United Australia Party and the Country Party broke down over Prime
Minister Menzies’ insistence on his right to choose all ministers. The 1940
Corio by-election to fill the place of Richard Casey unexpectedly produced a
Labor victory. According to former Country Party leader Earle Page this was
instrumental in Menzies' weakening his stance and offering five Cabinet
positions to the Country Party, with the leader of each party to choose his own
party's representatives[21]
- the Dawson by-election of 26
February 1966 was fought largely for Labor by the candidate, Rex Patterson, and
the party's deputy leader, Gough Whitlam. The national leader, Arthur Calwell,
was convinced that Labor could not win and took little part. To the surprise of
many, Patterson was successful. Whitlam was due to come before the Federal
Executive of the ALP on 2 March to face possible disciplinary treatment,
possibly even expulsion. According to Graham Freudenberg, the last-minute
change of stance of the Queensland delegates, grateful to Whitlam for the
Dawson result, saved his position—and possibly his political career[22]
- Labor’s failure to win the seat of
Flinders in a by-election of late 1982 was said to have had a double impact.
Bill Hayden’s position as Labor leader became increasingly insecure, while
Prime Minister Fraser apparently became convinced of the need for an early
election before there was any chance of Hayden’s replacement by Bob Hawke. The
consequential replacement of Hayden and the announcement of an early election
on the same day were thus intimately connected with the by-election's outcome[23]
- during 1993–1994 much media
discussion focussed on the possibility of Senator Bronwyn Bishop eventually
assuming the leadership of the Liberal Party. When the seat of Mackellar fell
vacant in 1994 Bishop secured Liberal preselection in an apparent move to clear
the way for a push to the leadership. Labor did not contest the by-election and
Bishop’s main rival was the writer, Bob Ellis, standing as an independent.
Although Bishop won the seat comfortably with 52.2 per cent of first
preferences, the Liberal first preference vote had fallen by 4.4 per cent.
Although this was hardly a major loss of votes, her failure to increase her
vote in the absence of a Labor candidate was considered enough to end any
chance she may have had for the Liberals' top job. As fellow Liberal, Peter
Reith, put it, ‘Most people within the parliamentary party were of the opinion
that Bronwyn didn't have any votes within the parliamentary party ... if she
didn’t have many before Saturday [that is, the by-election], she hasn’t got any
more today’[24]
-
the latter half of 2017 appeared
predominantly devoted to Section 44(i) of the Constitution, and the eligibility
of many parliamentarians—both Senators and Members—to sit in their respective chambers
because of dual citizenship was brought into question. Two Coalition members
failed this eligibility resulting in by-elections which threatened to overturn
the Government’s one seat majority. Deputy Prime Minister Barnaby Joyce (New
England, NP) was found by the Court of Disputed Returns to also be a New
Zealand citizen while John Alexander (Bennelong, LP) had dual citizenship
confirmed by British authorities. A further member, David Feeney (Batman, ALP),
was referred by his own party to the High Court for a ruling in early 2018.[25]
The Labor party and crossbenchers’ attempt to refer a total of nine
members—four Labor, four Liberal and one from the Nick Xenophon Team—was
defeated by the casting vote of the Speaker of the House, Tony Smith.[26]
With the citizenship declarations by all Parliamentarians in December 2017 not
clarifying the dual citizenship ‘crisis’, there is the possibility of further
by-elections causing political instability up to the next election.
Voided elections
Some by-elections have been caused by the voiding of
particular results after a general election: Melbourne and Riverina in 1904,
Echuca 1907, Ballaarat 1920, Lindsay 1996 and New England 2017.
The Wills by-election of 1992 was itself voided, but another
by-election was not held because of the proximity of the next general election.
[1]. S Barber, House
of Representatives by-elections 1901-2015, Research paper series,
2015-16, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, 2016, accessed 8 January 2018.
[2]. Figures from
Chamber Research Office, Department of the House of Representatives.
[3]. The average
age of new members was 45.4 years over the last four Parliaments (42nd
to 45th); however, this only increases the average age of new members
since 1977 to just over 43 years.
[4]. For example,
in the period 1901–1910, a 45 year old male (female) could expect to live
another 24.8 (27.6) years while, in 2014–16, the additional life expectancy is
37.1 (40.6) years. Sources: ABS, Australian
historical population statistics, 2014, 3105.0.65.001, tables 6.2 and 6.6;
and ABS, Life
tables, States, Territories and Australia, 2014–16, 3302.0.55.001, table
1.9, accessed 8 January 2018.
[5]. Australian
Constitution, section 33, accessed 8 January 2018.
[6]. Commonwealth Electoral
Act 1918 (Cth), accessed 8 January 2018.
[7]. Such a short
period is no longer possible under the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918.
[8]. ‘Elections
and the electoral system’, in IE Harris, ed, House
of Representatives practice, 6th edn, Department of the House of
Representatives, Canberra, 2012, pp. 92-94, accessed 8 January 2018.
[9]. A Summers, Gamble
for power: how Bob Hawke beat Malcolm Fraser, the 1983 Federal election,
Nelson, Melbourne, 1983, p. 63.
[10]. ‘Members’ in
IE Harris, ed, House
of Representatives practice, op. cit., pp. 154-157.
[11]. S Bennett, The
Cunningham by-election 2002, Research note, 18, 2002–03, Department of
the Parliamentary Library, Canberra, 2002, accessed 8 January 2018.
12.. Note: The enrolment figure for the first
by-election in Darling Downs in 1901 is not available, therefore, turnout cannot
be calculated. Also the four by-elections contested by a single candidate are
excluded from the calculations in this section.
[13]. Perhaps,
surprisingly, the academic literature on by-elections in Australia is quite
sparse, see Appendix 5.
[14]. No effort is
made to look at two-party preferred figures between the introduction of
preferential voting in 1918 and 1949, due to the difficulty in establishing
such figures for the earlier period. All swing figures used in the paper are
calculated on two-party preferred votes unless where otherwise indicated.
[15]. There were 22
candidates at the Wills by-election and the first preference swing against the
ALP candidate was 19.3 per cent.
[16]. For general
notes on by-elections, see Appendix 3.
[17]. IE Harris,
ed., House
of Representatives practice, op. cit., p. 157.
[18]. Parliamentary Privileges
Act 1987, accessed 5 June 2014.
[19]. P Kelly, The
unmaking of Gough, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1994, pp. 234–5.
[20]. M Gordon, A
true believer: Paul Keating, University of Queensland Press, St Lucia,
1996, pp. 297–301.
[21]. E Page, Truant
surgeon: the inside story of forty years of Australian political life,
Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1963, pp. 284–6.
[22]. G
Freudenberg, A certain grandeur: Gough Whitlam in politics, Rev. and
updated ed, Penguin, Melbourne, 2009, pp. 35–9.
[23]. Summers, Gamble
for power, op. cit., pp. 13, 63.
[24]. L Taylor,
‘Poll result a blow to Bishop Libs’, The Australian, 29 March 1994.
[25]. David Feeney
resigned on 1 February 2018 triggering a by-election which will be held on 17
March 2018,
[26]. Citizenship
saga: Labor bid to send nine more MPs to High Court fails but ALP backbencher
David Feeney referred, ABC News, 6 December 2017, accessed 8 January
2018.
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