On 2 December 2016, Australia's 1297 Inspeximus issue of the Magna Carta was taken from display to undergo an extensive research and conservation project. The Department of Parliamentary Services engaged the University of Melbourne’s Grimwade Centre for Cultural Materials Conservation to undertake conservation assessment, analysis, research, and treatment of the manuscript.
Australia’s Magna Carta is a complex document because it has four parts made up of different materials: the parchment, the ink, the silk cords and the wax seal. Working in collaboration with other scientists, conservators have analysed each part to confirm exactly what it is made from and to understand its condition now compared to its original state in 1297.
They found the parchment, ink and cords to be in good condition, especially considering their age. The seal was found to be the most delicate and fragile part of the document, and though it is damaged, it is stable if handled carefully. The fact that the seal and cords are still attached to the parchment is significant. This comprehensive condition assessment enabled the conservators to identify opportunities to stabilise any damage and determine what elements may be at greater risk and needing particular care.
The conservators also provided advice on the specifications for the new display system, a complex matter given that each physical and environmental factor presents differing risks to each material in the Magna Carta. These factors include light, pollutants in the air, pests, and temperature and humidity levels that are too high, too low, or fluctuating too rapidly.
Through learning more about the physical composition and condition of the Magna Carta, conservators helped plan how to protect it and ensure its preservation so that it may be displayed for generations to come.
The Preservation Case
Parliament House Art Collection handlers removing the Magna Carta case from its display. 2015, Department of Parliamentary Services.
When the Magna Carta arrived in Australia in 1952, Parliamentary Librarian Harold White sought advice about how to preserve the manuscript while on public display. He consulted with the Library of Congress in Washington DC and the United States National Bureau of Standards about the new display system that they had recently implemented for the American Declaration of Independence using a completely sealed enclosure containing an inert gas. The Australian custodians were also aware of other factors which would need to be addressed, such as the light and humidity that could compromise the Magna Carta’s long-term preservation.
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Defence Standards Laboratories were tasked with developing an internal ‘preservation case’ to manage these risks to the document which would sit inside a public showcase.
JH Bayston and a CSIRO team member testing the original custom Magna Carta case at the CSIRO Division of Industrial Chemistry, 1961, courtesy CSIRO Heritage Archives.
The research and development project necessary to create this preservation case took eight years. As FG Nicholls, Research Secretary (Scientific Services) and Patents Committee member at the CSIRO wrote to Harold White:
… at almost every stage new ground has had to be covered, and those concerned have had neither the experience nor advice to call upon … the metal to glass seal for instance will have many applications in instrument technology … these are scientific attainments which have resulted in this work.
– FG Nicholls to H. White, 27 March 1958.
The final preservation case consisted of an airtight container made from glass and metal, filled with argon to create an oxygen-free environment. To reduce ultraviolet light exposure, a yellow filter was placed on top. In 1961 the Magna Carta, inside the state-of-the-art preservation case, was placed in a showcase on display at Provisional Parliament House in Canberra. The display moved to the Members’ Hall of Parliament House in 1988. The condition of the document and the integrity of the preservation case was closely monitored throughout its time on display.
In 2016, a conservation project was initiated to review the conservation framework for the Magna Carta. One of the first steps was to investigate the atmosphere inside the 1961 preservation case. Conservators used technology usually used for phlebotomy, the procedure to collect blood, to prevent loss of the atmospheric samples and minimise cross-contamination with external gases.
Sampling of air contained in tubing connected to the Magna Carta courtesy Grimwade Centre for Cultural Materials Conservation, University of Melbourne.
The conservation team next faced a key challenge of the project: How to safely open the near- unbreakable case without harming the Magna Carta. Each component of the case was carefully deconstructed piece by piece. A precision tool was custom-made by Victoria University Polytechnic to cut the lead that lined the inner walls, allowing the case to be accessed.
The findings from broader research and testing the 1961 case, have informed the design of the 2024 preservation case. To ensure a good preservation environment within the new case, the materials have undergone careful selection, and testing including using a technique called the ‘Oddy test’, developed in 1975. Conservators used the Oddy test to identify materials that may release corrosive gasses (volatile organic compounds or VOCs). This testing informed the selection of materials for the production of the new preservation case.
Parchment
Edward I (1272–1307) Inspeximus issue of Magna Carta (detail), 1297, Parliament House Art Collections.
Parchment has been used as a writing material for thousands of years. It is thought to have been in use as early as 1500 BC and became the most common writing material in Europe in the early Middle Ages. It was readily available, but laborious, time-consuming and expensive to produce.
Parchment is made by treating the skin of an animal – usually calf, sheep or goat – with a lime solution. The treated skin is wet, stretched on a frame to align its fibres and scraped with a curved knife to create a smooth writing surface. The process of scraping and stretching would be repeated until the parchment reached the desired thickness. It is not uncommon for parchment sheets to have flaws due to the animal’s colouration, scars or hair follicles, or to rips or holes caused by the production process. These might be repaired or simply worked around by the scribe.
Parchment was favoured by scribes because it is highly durable. By the 13th century when the 1297 Inspeximus Magna Carta was issued, parchment production techniques in Britain were advanced, producing parchment that was strong, thin and flexible. It is evident that this manuscript has been previously folded into as many as 16 sections – as three vertical and three horizontal creases are still clearly visible. When parchment is made skilfully it can last for hundreds, and possibly thousands, of years. However, while robust, it is sensitive to changes in humidity.
Parchment has two sides, the flesh side and the grain side. The flesh side is from the interior of the animal and the grain side refers to the exterior of the animal. The smooth, flesh side of the parchment has been used as the writing surface of Australia’s Magna Carta and has a slightly lighter colour than the grain side.
Using an analytical technique – ‘peptide or protein fingerprinting’ which was pioneered at the University of York – conservators from the University of Melbourne were able to confirm that the parchment was made with sheep skin. This process involved comparing the ratios of proteins found in a tiny sample of the parchment against those of different animal species to find a match.
Conservators also found patches glued to the back of the Magna Carta to repair some small tears, applied before its arrival in Australia. Although keeping the tears together, they found that the patches and glue had probably forced the parchment out of its natural shape. To reduce this pressure, conservators carefully thinned the patches with a scalpel working under a stereomicroscope, taking care not to remove any of the original parchment. The removal of the patch material significantly increased the flexibility of the parchment.
Ink
Before the invention of the printing press, scribes copied multiples of official documents by hand. Australia’s Magna Carta is written in Latin, which was the language of the Church and government, even though French was the language at the Royal Court at the time. It is written in a ‘standard chancery hand’ using the established and comprehensive system of abbreviation designed to save both time and parchment. The ink used by scribes – iron-gall ink – dates from antiquity and was in wide use throughout the Western world from mediaeval times to the early 20th centuries due to its ease of manufacture and longevity.
Iron-gall ink is made by mixing tannins, that occur naturally in plants, with iron salts. In the 13th century when this Magna Carta was copied, tannins were sourced from swelling growths on trees called ‘galls’ which are caused by insect larvae. Conservators confirmed that the galls used in this ink were from oak trees. The galls were crushed and mixed with iron sulphate (vitriol) and binders such as tree gum or honey and water to create the ink. Iron gall ink is purple-grey or black in colour, turning a rusty brown as it oxidises over time. The acidic nature of this ink made it ideal for use on parchment as it etched into the skin.
The 13th century scribes used a quill pen made from a goose feather, its thick end shaped, sharpened and split with a small knife to form a nib. Inkwells were made of cow’s horn, shaped to balance on the top of the slanted desk at which the scribes worked. Before beginning to write, the scribe would trace lines on the parchment, generally using a dry stylus or lead point or coloured ink to help keep their writing even. If you look closely, you can see the pale grey horizonal lines, drawn by the scribe. When mistakes were made or minor ink spills occurred, a knife was used to gently scrape off a thin layer of parchment to remove the ink.
A process called X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy was used to confirm that this Magna Carta was written with iron-gall ink. This non-destructive process uses a beam of x-rays to excite the electrons in the atoms of a substance causing them to emit energy in a characteristic pattern. This pattern is unique for different elements, allowing conservators to confirm the presence of iron in the ink.
X-Ray fluorescence spectroscope taking readings from the Magna Carta. 2015, Department of Parliamentary Services.
Iron-gall ink differs from modern inks in a way that is crucial for the preservation of the Magna Carta. Most modern inks fade when exposed to light and oxygen. When the CSIRO made the original preservation case for the Magna Carta in the 1950s, they applied this best-practice knowledge of the time and created an oxygen-free environment – one filled with inert Argon gas to exclude oxygen.
Recent studies have shown that iron-gall ink is part of a small group of pigments that fade in the light but regain their colour when kept in the dark and in the presence of oxygen. The conservators tested samples of iron gall ink under different conditions to confirm this finding. This new knowledge was incorporated into the specifications for the new preservation case, which was filled with ordinary breathable air (about 21 per cent oxygen). This is a notable example of how new research has informed the approach to caring for the Magna Carta.
Cords
Australia’s 1297 Inspeximus Magna Carta has well-preserved intricate silk cords, and a wax seal still attached.
In the 13th century when it was written, seals were used by people or offices to acknowledge that documents had been witnessed and endorsed. Pendant seals, such as the Magna Carta’s, were attached to documents by parchment tags or braided threads, known as cords. The quality of the cords and seal reflected the status or authority of the sender.
Remarkably, the cords of the Magna Carta have retained their original red and green colour after more than 700 years. They appear to have been made using a technique called Finger Loop braiding. This technique was used across Europe from the 13th century and produced a strong, four-sided cord. The conservation project not only informed the approach to the preservation needs of the cords, but also provided significant insight into the production techniques used.
Mid-section of four seal cords courtesy Grimwade Centre for Cultural Materials Conservation, University of Melbourne.
Conservators used a technique called Scanning Electron Microscopy to examine the fibres of the cords with a powerful microscope at 1000 to 2000 times magnification. They found that the condition of the fibres was very good for its age. The conservators’ analysis indicated that the cords were most likely made of cultivated silk, as was common for royal pendant seals. Cultivated silk comes from the cocoon of the mulberry silkworm. In the 13th century, England was reliant on silk imported from Europe or Asia where silk industries and trade routes were well established, which are the most likely sources for the Magna Carta cords.
Under the microscope, conservators also discovered the remains of a tiny silverfish which was removed for identification. The silverfish would not have survived in the oxygen-free case and so must have been present in the cords for at least 50 years.
To identify the dyes used to colour the silk in 1297, researchers at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) used a technique called High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. The scientists were able to extract the dye into a liquid solution from miniscule samples taken from the Magna Carta cords. This solution was chemically separated into its different components to form an identifying pattern, or ‘spectrum’. The composition of the dyes was then analysed. Textile conservators created a new sample library of dyes by growing plants known to have been used in the Middle Ages. For example, the Weld plant is used to make a yellow dye which would have been combined with a blue dye, likely from the Wode plant, to form a green dye. The CSIRO scientists then compared the samples from the new sample library with samples from the Magna Carta cords. This was the first time that this type of testing had been undertaken in Australia using such tiny samples.
A match between the sample taken from the green cord and the Weld plant was found. A match for the red cord was not found in the sample library. However, it was confirmed that one of the most common sources of red dye in the period, the root of the madder plant, was not used in this cord. Based on other materials known to have been available in the 13th century, the red dye is likely to have been sourced from a dye called Kermes made from scale insects or a dye from the Brazilwood tree. Further research and development of the sample library may find other potential dye matches for the red colouring.
Conservators inspecting the Magna Carta, courtesy of Grimwade Centre for Cultural Materials Conservation, University of Melbourne.
Seal
One of the most important features of Australia’s Magna Carta is the wax seal used to signify the King’s approval and authentication of the document. In an age when few people could read or write, the seal provided a physical expression of royal approval which everyone could understand. It also made forgery of, or tampering with, official documents more difficult.
The word ‘seal’ is used for both the carved metal die or matrix, and the impression it leaves when stamped into wax.
Edward I (1272–1307), Inspeximus issue of Magna Carta (detail), 1297, Parliament House Art Collections.
The earliest known example of an English monarch’s royal seal to survive to the present day is that of Edward the Confessor in the 11th century, though the practice of using seals dates to antiquity. Since then, the Great Seal of England, now known as the Great Seal of the Realm, has been the mark of royal ratification, symbolising the will and authority of the monarch.
Royal seals are two-sided and while every monarch has had their own seal or seals, all use similar imagery. On the front, the monarch is seated on a throne holding one or more of the symbols of their divinely-anointed power and responsibilities as sovereign – a sword, orb and sceptre. On the back, they are on horseback, armoured or dressed in uniform, depicted as military ruler and defender of the realm.
To seal a document, a metal engraved die or matrix was used to make an impression in softened wax. For double seals, a ‘seal press’ was needed to ensure that the two sides aligned correctly. A wax seal could be applied directly to a document or, in the case of Royal Charters, attached by cords or parchment tags.
Pigments and hardeners were often added to the wax. Wax and pigment were important commodities and often had to be imported from Europe to meet demand.
The British monarchy’s constitutional role has changed since 1297, but seals remain a vital part of the approval process, with the Great Seal of the Realm being used more than 100 times annually on documents requiring royal consent. Australia also has a Great Seal which shows the Australian Coat of Arms and is primarily applied to documents signed by the Governor-General, such as Proclamations and Letters Patent establishing Royal Commissions.
Australia’s Magna Carta bears the seal of King Edward I. This is the King’s ‘Seal of Absence’ because he was in Flanders, Belgium with his troops at the time, preparing to fight the French army and had taken the Great Seal with him. The front of the seal shows the King on the throne carrying a sceptre in each hand, in contrast to the orb and sceptre featured on his Great Seal. The seal was added to the reissued charter, on the authority of Edward’s vice-regents.
Of the three other surviving original copies of the 1297 Magna Carta, those held by the United States National Archives and the London Archives also bear the impression of the ‘Seal of Absence’. The seal has become detached from the copy held in the National Archives in the United Kingdom. All three surviving seals have been damaged. However, the copy in the London Metropolitan Archives has the most complete seal.
The seal on Australia’s Magna Carta is of beeswax which has been mixed with rosin secreted from the bark of pine trees. This was commonly added to sealing wax in the Middle Ages as a hardener.
The seal of the Magna Carta is composed of an original wax seal and a wax repair made later. The original seal is natural or ‘white’ wax, meaning that no pigment has been added. By Edward’s time, green wax had become standard for royal charters. However, uncoloured or white seals could be used for copies. At some point the original seal on the Australian copy suffered significant damage and was encased in reddish-brown wax to help preserve it and prevent further damage. This repair was made before the Australian Government purchased the document.
During the conservation project, conservators examined the seal under the microscope and found a small crack in the lower edge. This crack is probably due to the pressure of the small stitches used to secure the silk cord. The wax had become brittle with age and was crumbling along the length of the crack. Conservators applied a special adhesive to the crack with a small paint brush under a microscope to prevent further crumbling. They chose this adhesive because it is compatible with the wax of the seal, acid-free, long-lasting, and resistant to yellowing. This treatment ensured that the wax did not crumble further when the document was installed into the new display case.
The small crack above silk cords, now stabilised with adhesive to reduce future damage. Libby Melzer, University of Melbourne Grimwade Centre, 2017.
Future care of the Magna Carta
The preparation for the return of the Magna Carta to public display reflects the most recent developments in conservation science and technology.
The display and preservation cases have been designed to protect the manuscript from a variety of potentially damaging factors. Fluctuations in temperature and humidity are controlled by the preservation case and the display case to prevent warping, shrinking, and drying of the parchment and seal. The cases also provide protection from pests and pollutants which can damage the document’s sensitive materials, particularly the silk cords. Measures to limit its exposure to light have also been incorporated into the display as light can cause fading of the ink and dyes. The humidity is kept slightly lower than normal standard conditions to slow the rate of degradation of the parchment.
The story does not end there. The environmental conditions of the Magna Carta will continue to be closely monitored through sensors inside the cases. Conservators from the Department of Parliamentary Services will put into practice a detailed conservation plan, developed by the conservators from the University of Melbourne, for the future care of the document.
As the knowledge of conservation science continues to evolve, new findings and research will continue to inform the care of this important piece of world history.
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