CHAPTER 16 - PLANTS
16.1 As with animals, plants (and plant parts) can either be gathered directly from their natural
environment or cultivated artificially under controlled conditions. Both aspects of commercial utilisation
of native plants are currently expanding in Australia. Plants are used in floriculture for cut flowers, as
garden plants, in fence construction (broombrush), or extracted to produce gums and essential oils.
There is also a rapidly expanding industry based on the use of native plants for food (bush 'tucker' or
bushfood). Some native plants are also being researched for medicinal and pharmaceutical applications.
[1]
Wildflowers
Industry Development
16.2 The use of native plants in the cut flower industry in Australia has expanded considerably over the
last decade in Western Australia and to a lesser extent in Victoria and New South Wales. Flowers and
plant parts (such as leaves, stems and seed-pods) are harvested under licence from the bush or,
increasingly, are being cultivated by horticulturalists. Some states have legislation which facilitates the
picking of native flowers from the bush (including foliage and seeds). [2]
16.3 A major base-line study of the floriculture industry commissioned by RIRDC and carried out by
Karingal Consultants of Melbourne, was published in 1994. This report identified floriculture as an
important domestic and export industry in Australia and concluded that the key limitations to growth did
not relate to demand, but related more to the ability to get sufficient products to market at times of peak
air freight demand with minimum loss of quality. [3] In 1994-95, exports of wildflowers and native plants
were worth in total about $26 million. They are now worth about $30 million [4]. The major importing
countries are Japan, USA, Germany and the Netherlands; and the major types of flowers exported are
Geraldton wax, kangaroo paw, Thryptomene and species of Banksia, Leucadendron and Protea. [5]
16.4 Although the wildflower industry has been in existence for many years in Western Australia and
accounts for more that half of Australia's wildflower production, it is still primarily a 'cottage industry' and
there is a high turnover of growers and wholesale exporters. In 1995-96, almost 592 flora licences were
issued for commercial purposes and 511 flora licences were issued for commercial production. [6]
There have been a few high profile success stories but they have been short lived. [7]
16.5 According to Ms Carol Davies, Managing Director of Heritage Wildflowers, Australia has failed to
take full commercial advantage of its wildflower resources. Gains made by Western Australia were first
lost to the eastern states; then Australia faced strong competition from Israel, California and, most
recently, South Africa. In addition to loss of markets to overseas countries which are producing Western
Australia wildflowers, Australia is now experiencing a loss of skilled scientists:
The history of this industry is that in the 1960s we sent all of our seeds overseas, in the 1970s we potted
them up in plants, in the 1980s we tissue cultured them; now in the 1990s our top scientists are taking
overseas jobs to show them how to get it right. People who have come to prominence in Australia on
R&D funds are now being employed overseas; for instance in Japan to develop pink Sturt peas for the
Japanese market. All of that research was done on Commonwealth funds here in Australia. [8]
16.6 Unlike many other industries in Australia based on commercial use of wildlife, the floriculture
industry does not face legislative export constraints, regardless of whether the flowers have been
cultivated or picked from the wild. However, there are logistic problems with the issuing of export
licences and, according to Ms Davies, it can take up to four months for Environment Australia to
process an application. Part of the problem appears to be that once an application from Western
Australia has been sent to Environment Australia, the Federal body then refers it back to the state body
(CALM) for confirmation. Ms Davies recommended that time would be saved if applications were
cleared in Western Australia before being sent to Canberra. [9]
16.7 The major problem faced by the floriculture industry is that there is no legislation, state or federal,
to prevent genetic resources from being removed from Australia and used by other countries to develop
and propagate cultivars from that material. With the advent of micropropagation techniques (tissue
culture), legislation to prevent seed export would be ineffective in preventing Australian plants from being
cultivated elsewhere. The only way in which Australian plants could be protected from exploitation
overseas would be through an international protocol which prevented the tissue culture of native plants.
Ms Davies pointed out that there was a significant anomaly in the fact that an Australian could be heavily
fined for picking a wildflower from the bush, but that overseas agronomists and plant breeders could,
with a licence, remove genetic resources in the form of plant material to cultivate elsewhere. [10]
16.8 When asked about this problem the Director of CALM, Mr Keiran McNamara, commented that
other than a total ban on the removal of all plant material from the bush and from Australia (which would
see the end of the floraculture industry), preventing other countries from obtaining plant genetic material
from Australia would be very hard to achieve in practice. Only a very small amount of plant material was
needed for tissue culture and seeds could be very easily smuggled out as well. [11]
16.9 At the moment, 60 per cent of flora exported from Western Australia is collected from the wild,
although the proportion of bush-picked flowers is declining in WA and now represents only 16 per cent
of production. [12] It is preferable for industry to source flowers from cultivated stands, but moves to
increase cultivation are limited by lack of funds. Ms Davies suggested that the allocation of R&D funding
should be more industry driven. Funding would be more cost-effective if they were directed towards the
private sector, proving incentives for propagation and growing, rather than laboratory work. [13]
16.10 According to RIRDC, the current farm-gate value for wildflowers is $30 million. [14] In
consultation with the industry, RIRDC has developed a five-year R&D plan [15] and in the past some
$550,000 per annum has been invested by that organisation in R&D. [16] However, in response to the
failure of the industry to support a floriculture levy, RIRDC withheld funding for new projects in
1996-97. According to RIRDC, in addition to defining and developing new markets, key issues for the
industry are:
- the creation of new and improved wildflowers, and wildflower products, that will match market
needs and have an extended season;
- improvement of production efficiency;
- enhancement of the industry's ability to deliver a quality product on time;
- improve the dissemination of market-related and technical information; [17] and
- maintain access to and preserve the huge wild gene bank. [18]
-
Concern About Over-Harvesting
16.11 In its evidence to the Committee, CALM expressed concern that wildflower harvesting had the
potential to deplete the bush and threaten some species, although the Department noted that this would
only occur if the industry was unregulated and unmanaged. Mr McNamara outlined the efforts made
over the last decade to improve management of the industry, including aspects of administration,
inspection and enforcement and scientific knowledge, as well as improving communication with the
industry through the establishment of a Flora Industry Advisory Committee. There was a comprehensive
management plan for the industry [19] and where there was information that certain plant species were
of conservation concern, they had been removed from the list of species available for harvesting. [20]
16.12 The Western Australian Government believes that the bush harvesting of wildflowers is a good
example of sustainable use of wildlife aiding conservation because the placement of an economic value
on natural habitats provides an incentive for landholders to retain remnant bushland. [21] However, this
view was not shared by some environmental groups which are opposed to bush picking of flowers on
the basis of detrimental impact to the environment. The Conservation Council of Western Australia
expressed concern about the impact that picking of wild flowers had on the environment, in particular the
potential for spread of disease (die back and aerial canker) and the lack of regulation by government
over the industry. [22] This view was supported by the Nature Conservation Council of NSW. [23]
16.13 In addition, the North Coast Environment Council cited a case where a licence was granted to a
single operator to remove 500,000 banksia blossoms in one year. About this the Council stated:
The countless number of insects, bats, birds, small mammals and reptiles that must have suffered at the
hands of one proponent is hard to imagine. One only has to observe a banksia in flower to realise just
how many diurnal as well as nocturnal species depend on them for food. It seems obvious, even without
studies being undertaken, that this loss must have a disastrous effect on the fauna population and local
environment. How could this possibly be called environmental sustainability? [24]
16.14 However, while some conservation groups would prefer to see a total ban on bush harvesting,
CALM believes that it is an important element in conservation of remnant areas of native flora because,
with commercial use of flowers comes an incentive to retain those areas in their natural state. [25]
Further, native wildflowers have several environmental advantages over exotic flowers - their production
systems do not consume large quantities of water and they do not require large applications of fertilisers
and pesticides. [26]
Native Trees and Shrubs
Garden Plants
16.15 There are hundreds of native plants that have been cultivated by the horticulture industry for
garden plants but there are only a few plant species harvested. The most important of these is the tree
fern, Dicksonia antarctica. [27] Tree ferns are removed under licence from forests which are being
harvested in Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales. In Tasmania, about 80,000 plants are sold to
Victoria at an approximate value of $800,000. A Commonwealth management plan for the species has
not been accepted and so export of tree ferns is prohibited. Should approval be given, it is estimated
that the volume exported from Tasmania would instead be worth $30 million. In the long-term it is hoped
that export approval may be granted for nursery-grown sporlings. [28]
16.16 TRAFFIC Oceania expressed considerable concern that there was a complete lack of
information about the size and nature of the domestic market for Dicksonia antarctica and the impact
that harvesting was having on the survival of the species in the wild. Figures given by TRAFFIC Oceania
indicate a sizeable illegal harvest is occurring in addition to the legal take. In 1991, it was estimated that
20,000 to 40,000 were taken from private land in Victoria, while a further 200,000 were imported from
Tasmania. The industry is largely unregulated, fragmented and uncoordinated, and pilfering, price-cutting,
poaching and unpaid royalties are apparently common. [29]
16.17 The Wollemi Pine was discovered in 1994 in New South Wales. It belongs to a new genus and is
known from only two populations of about 50 individual plants in Wollemi National Park. It is thus
considered to be threatened and, as part of a recovery plan, the NSW Government is exploring ways in
which the species can be commercialised. Among these are a tender for world rights to propagate and
distribute pine seedlings, the income from which will contribute to the conservation of the Wollemi Pine
and other rare or endangered plants. [30]
Broombrush (Melaleuca uncinata)
16.18 Melaleuca uncinata, commonly known as broombrush, is used as a fencing material and has
been popular in South Australia since the 1930s. It is a tall shrub with finely leaved branches which
occurs widely across the agricultural regions of the state. Some 30-50 kilometres of fencing are
constructed from this material each year. The South Australian Government believes that there is
sufficient brush available for a sustainable harvest but the industry disagrees, claiming that they have had
difficulties obtaining enough good quality brush, and a brush Management Working Group has been set
up to examine this issue. [31]
Xanthorrhoea semiplana tateana
16.19 Xanthorrhoea species are variously known as grass trees, blackboys, yacca gum or Tate's grass
tree. It is a genus of native plants that have a tree-like trunk (which stays black after fires), a large head
of grass-like leaves and a single tall flower spike. It is slow-growing and widespread in south-eastern
coastal areas and central Australia. Yacca gum is derived from resin which flows from the point where
the leaf base joins the trunk.
16.20 Traditional, indigenous uses included the use of resin as an adhesive, the flower spikes as spear
shafts and firesticks, and the trunk, seeds and nectar as sustenance. Recent modern uses of the gum
include munitions (historic), fireworks, polishes, stains and varnishes. Products taken from the plant
include cut flower spikes and leaves for floral displays, and small whole plants for gardens.
16.21 The main environmental benefit of industries based on Xanthorrhoea species is the possibility that
applying a commercial value to it may encourage farmers to retain stands on land which would otherwise
be cleared for pasture improvement. The main detrimental environmental impacts are:
- picking flower spikes may result in loss of a food source for birds, insects and small mammals
[32] (to minimise this impact, the Department of Environment has granted export approval only
for flower spikes that have been harvested after seed set); [33]
- removing whole plants may reduce the distribution and abundance of the species (although it
seems that most whole plants that become commercial products are taken as salvage from land
clearing exercises);
- the collection of yacca gum may weaken the plant and lessen its ability to recover after fire; and
- the collection of leaves may also weaken the plant.
16.22 Yacca gum is mostly derived from the species Xanthorrhoea semiplana tateana which is
common on Kangaroo Island. Harvesting is now restricted to dead plants removed from existing pasture
land and areas that are being cleared. The declaration of the species as a controlled plant expired on 30
June 1997 and having concluded that it was not an ecologically sustainable industry, the South Australian
Government did not renew the declaration and consequently the industry has now ceased. [34]
16.23 There are still small industries in Queensland, NSW, Victoria and Western Australia based on the
collection of Xanthorrhoea flower spikes and leaves for wholesale to florists. Approval for export of
these products has been granted under the Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports)
Act 1982. [35]
16.24 However, both the North Coast Environment Council and the Stradbroke Island Management
Organisation Inc are opposed to the harvesting of Xanthorrhoea leaves because of the impact on other
species which are dependent on the plant for food and shelter. According to the North Coast
Environment Council, although it may be difficult to assess the impact of harvesting of one native species
on the whole habitat, some impact must occur simply because the species is part of an ecosystem:
Millions of Xanthorrhoeas are being destroyed for the domestic and export market. A licence was
granted to a proponent for the removal of 50,000,000 of these leaves (ANCA Ref, 330/4/359) with the
statement that there was no effect on the species. It has to affect the survival of fauna. These plants are
essential to the ecosystem to fill the role previously played by the fast disappearing forests; that is, an
abundant source of nectar, shelter and protection for numerous birds, bats, reptiles, insects and small
mammals. The skirts of these plants are used for shelter by many small animals. How can the proponents
say that the taking of say, half-a-million of these plants has no effect on other species? Apart from the
effect on fauna, no studies appear to have been undertaken to establish the consequences of continual
harvesting on the plant. [36]
Sphagnum moss.
16.25 Sphagnum is a genus of mosses which occur throughout Australia and is the major component of
peat bogs. Peat bogs provide a critical ecosystem function, particularly in stream flow regulation and
water filtration. They are confined to subalpine and alpine areas of Tasmania, Victoria and New South
Wales.
16.26 The principle use of dried Sphagnum is in potting mix, but is also used as an absorbent material in
other applications. The main environmental benefit of Sphagnum harvesting is that it may provide a
viable alternative to the more disruptive activity of peat mining, or provide an economic incentive for
landholders not to drain peat bogs. There is, however, a very high risk associated with this activity
because Sphagnum bogs are highly susceptible to disturbance and take a long period to recover,
particularly where stream flow is altered.
16.27 Australia is a net importer of Sphagnum from other countries but there is a small industry in
Tasmania based on Sphagnum harvesting, as described by Environment Australia:
One operator in Tasmania has been harvesting moss continuously from one bog since the early 1970s.
The sheer longevity of this operation suggests that it is economically, and ecologically, viable in the
long-term. This operator has, through trial and error, developed a harvesting system which causes
minimal disruption to the surface of the bog: after initially using a system of flying foxes, the harvester
now uses a system of boards which are used as rails for a modified ride-on mower which hauls
harvested material from the bog. The harvester has also experimented with fertilisers to encourage faster
and richer moss regrowth following harvesting and Environment Australia has funded research by Dr
Jenny Whinham to identify sustainable harvest rates and identify sensitive bogs which should be
protected. Essentially, however, the maximum quantity of moss which can be harvested is static, which
means that the business has little opportunity for expansion at this site. The limited availability of large
Sphagnum bogs elsewhere in Australia also limits the ability for the business to expand. [37]
16.28 The North Coast Environment Council is opposed to the harvesting of Sphagnum moss on the
basis that build up of moss is essential to the survival of peat bogs and continual harvesting will not allow
this to happen. The Council is also concerned at the use of fertilisers to promote growth after harvesting,
because the majority of native plants usually grow in nutrient-poor soils. [38] However, the Tasmanian
Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries states that the industry is in fact 'only minor'; the volume
taken being about 125 cubic metres. [39]
Essential Oils
16.29 There is a growing interest in essential oils in Australia and the current value of production is about
$20 million (excluding tea-tree oil but including exotic species, such as lavender and peppermint, and the
refining of imported eucalyptus oil). [40] According to RIRDC, the current farm-gate value for industries
based on essential oils and plants extracts is about $6 million. [41] RIRDC has contributed R&D funding
for some years and because the industry has become established, now expects a 25 per cent industry
contribution.
16.30 The essential oil industry in Australia is small, fragmented and diverse and over the last few years
there has been an increasing focus on native species. The strengths of the industry are its 'clean-green'
image, the abundance of genetic diversity in native flora and a good technology base to support
innovation. [42] The three most prominent Australian plants being exploited for flavours and fragrances
are Eucalyptus species, Boronia megastigma and Tasmania lanceolata.
16.31 With the exception of eucalyptus and tea-tree oil distillation, most commercial activities are based
in Tasmania and, to a lesser extent, Victoria. Seven main companies form the core of the industry. In
Tasmania, the company Essential Oils was established as a venture between growers, the university of
Tasmania, and the Tasmanian Development Authority and was subsequently purchased by an
international company. [43] The industry in Tasmania operates a voluntary research levy. [44]
16.32 According to RIRDC: 'Australia has a comparative advantage as a reliable supplier of clean, good
quality unique essential oils and plant extracts based on the use of high technology in both production
and extraction' and the 'increasing use of essential oils and medicinal herbs in aromatherapy and other
healthcare areas offers new opportunities for the industry'. [45]
16.33 One of the most promising oils, extracted from brown boronia, produces a high-value flavour
additive and base for perfumes. [46] Another important oil is that extracted from the Tasmanian
mountain pepper, Tasmania lanceolata, which is currently being farmed in Tasmania and the oil
exported to Japan for use in chocolates, toothpaste and chewing gum. [47] The present value of the oil
extracted from T. lanceolata is about $50,000. [48]
16.34 RIRDC has developed a five year plan for the industry which includes the following R&D
strategies:
- to develop new and improved varieties for Australian conditions and international markets;
- to provide agronomic systems for the profitable and sustainable production of high quality oils;
- to improve harvesting, extraction and processing technology to increase yields;
- to add value before and after the farm-gate; and
- to conduct further research on medicinal herbs and plant extracts. [49]
16.35 Essential oil markets, both domestic and export, are dominated by overseas companies and the
industry in Australia currently suffers from a lack of collaboration and a lack of information about
markets and trends. Threats to the industry include low-cost overseas competitors, declining government
support for the rural sector and loss of control of genetic resources. [50]
Eucalyptus Oil
16.36 The extraction of oil from a number of native species of Eucalyptus and Cinnamonum by steam
distillation has had a long history in Australia and it is now much smaller than it used to be. The current
output is about 110 tonnes annually compared to 1,000 tonnes at its peak in the decade between 1939
and 1948. [51] The main commercial species harvested is E. polybractea and production is increasingly
being based on cultivated trees. The industry comprises two companies that operate in Victoria and
NSW and Australia is a producer, importer, exporter and re-exporter of eucalyptus oils. The potential
for developing an industry in Western Australia, based on mallee species, is currently being assessed
with the establishment of 5,000 hectares of trail plantations over six sites.
16.37 The major end uses of eucalyptus oil are in pharmaceuticals, toiletries, antiseptics, solvents,
fragrances and confectionery. The major trade is in import and re-export in products. Australia's major
competitor is China and its major importers are France, Germany, UK and USA.
16.38 RIRDC has noted that the two major threats to the industry are competitors having lower labour
costs and what is perceived to be restrictive legislation in Australia. [52] Despite renewed interest in
eucalyptus oil production in recent years, primarily a result of conservation and agroforestry initiatives
(particularly in Western Australia) and the desire by some farmers to diversify farm incomes, the industry
has suffered through competition from China where oil is sold at prices below the cost of production.
[53] The future of the industry in Australia is very much linked to trends in world prices and now
depends very much on its ability to reduce production costs. Other key factors include its ability to
increase production efficiency, to develop new cineol-based medicinal products, to develop new
industrial solvents and to find 'substitution' markets to replace synthetic solvents such as trichloroethane.
RIRDC has included eucalyptus in its 'Essential Oils & Plant Extracts Program 1996-2001'.
Tea-Tree Oil
16.39 The native shrub tea-tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) occurs naturally on the northern New South
Wales coast where it has been harvested for oil distillation for nearly 100 years. The industry in Australia
is currently worth about $12 million, with good future growth dependent on the receipt of formal medical
acceptance. [54] Production is currently about 200 tonnes per annum, which could increase to 500-600
tonnes, possibly resulting in an oversupply of oil if market resistance continues. [55] The industry is well
established in northern NSW and is increasing in Queensland where tobacco growers are seeking
alternative crops. Production is now largely plantation based, but bush picking under licence still exists in
some areas. The industry is considered at the moment to be 'highly profitable'. [56] However, because
tax investment schemes have encouraged investment in plantings, supply may outstrip demand within a
few years.
16.40 While there is plentiful anecdotal evidence of the efficacy of tea-tree oil as an antiseptic, there is
very little scientific data about its effect on bacteria, fungi and viruses. [57] Australia produces some 99
per cent of the world's tea-tree oil but, in the face of possible competition from overseas (US, Malaysia,
Indonesia, India, Vietnam, China and Zimbabwe), RIRDC is concentrating research on identifying the
best genetic resources in order to optimise production. RIRDC has also identified a number of other
research issues, including:
- support for the registration of tea-tree oil for use as a medicinal product;
- the development of improved and sustainable crop management procedures, particularly pests
and weeds; and
- improving plantation management knowledge and skills. [58]
Bushfood
Industry Development
16.41 Despite the fact that Aboriginal people survived and thrived on native foods for many thousands
of years, interest in bushfood among European people in Australia only began in earnest some 15 years
ago and it has only been in the last couple of years that the industry has gathered commercial momentum.
It is still, however, small, fragmented and largely undercapitalised. RIRDC has developed in consultation
with the bushfood industry, a five-year plan for research and development and has assisted in the
formation of a national peak body, the Australian Native Bushfood Industry Committee. There is an
increasing number of regional and special interest bush foods associations with their own peak body, the
Committee of Regional Bushfood Organisations.
16.42 There are two methods of obtaining supplies of bushfoods - harvesting 'bush tucker' from the wild
and growing native plants as crops. At the moment, the majority of retailed bushfoods (about 80%) is
harvested from the wild by licensed seasonal collectors or by Aboriginal communities. However, with
the high cost of wild harvesting (it is very labour intensive) and unreliability of plant production, the
industry is steadily moving towards cultivation of crops.
16.43 State regulations vary on the harvesting of bushfood from the wild. For example, in Tasmania
there are no restrictions on harvesting from state forests but a licence is needed to harvest from Crown
land, while in Queensland licences are required in all areas. The plants most commonly harvested include
wattle (for seed), bush tomato, Illawarra plums, lemon aspen, lemon myrtle, pepperleaf and pepper
berries, riberry, aniseed myrtle, quandong, bunya pines (for nuts), lilly pilly, bush cucumber, warrigal
greens, native mint, kurrajong, bush banana, wild limes, muntries and munthari and the kakadu plum.
16.44 Along with the wildflower industry, the bushfood industry has pioneered economic values for
many native species of plants. There have been three main areas of commercialisation: the horticultural
development of native plants as 'bush-tucker plants' for sale in retail nurseries; the development of
products for retail sale in supermarkets and gourmet food shops which contain bushfood wholly or in
part; and the development of products for use in restaurants.
16.45 Australian Native Produce Industries Pty Ltd, for example, is a fully integrated business
comprising:
- a commercial production nursery at Renmark in South Australia, where both bushfoods are
grown for further processing and where horticultural varieties of bushfoods are grown for
wholesale to retail plant nurseries;
- an intensive irrigation property at Murtho in South Australia where a broad range of native food
plants (and protected native animals) are grown; and
- a food processing factory, warehouse and distribution centre in Adelaide which produces the
'Red Ochre Retail Range' and the 'Food Service Range' (see Box).
16.46 In association with culinary use of bushfood, has been the increased promotion of meat from
native animals (kangaroo, wallaby, possum, crocodile, emu and fish such as barramundi), and the
development of associated products such as cook books. [59] The 'Red Ochre' name is franchised to a
number of restaurants in Australia which specialise in foods prepared with native plant and animal
ingredients. Restaurants operate in Cairns, Alice Springs, Adelaide, Melbourne and Brisbane and
several overseas franchises were scheduled to open in 1998. There are now suppliers of bushfoods
throughout Australia and a large number of products are now found in supermarkets. According to
RIRDC, the current farm-gate value for plant-based bushfoods is $10 million. [60]
Industry Potential
16.47 The strengths of the bushfoods industry lie its new and unique flavours which, along with game
meats, has inspired a truly Australian cuisine, its 'clean-green' image and its involvement with indigenous
people. There are a number of important opportunities associated with the industry, including the ability
of Australian rural producers to diversify into 'natural' crops, the prospect of producing food crops in
areas previously devoid of horticulture and the possibility of interlinkages with eco-tourism.
16.48 The Australian Native Bushfood Industry Committee reports that bushfood sales were over $14
million in 1996, and the market is expected to grow to $100 million by the year 2000. [61] The Rural
Industries Research and Development Corporation believes that the bushfood industry has a 'good
future' in terms of new flavours and new fragrances and has assisted the industry in a number of ways (in
particular, by holding workshops and sponsoring studies). During 1997, a draft R&D plan for the
bushfoods industry was released for comment. [62]
16.49 According to Mr Noel Beynon, Manager of Rural Industry Policy of the Federal Department of
Primary Industries and Energy, the bushfood industry faces a number of technical problems in the
development of environmentally sustainable cultivation to replace bush harvesting. Other problems
include: the development of an appropriate and accepted industry terminology; issues relating to quality
assurance and labelling; the long lead time in the development of cultivated varieties; and the fact that the
industry is fragmented and largely comprises small, under-capitalised and under-skilled businesses, all of
which may constrain economic development. [63] However, Mr Beynon noted that despite these
constraints: 'Bush food harvesting has the potential to provide a sustainable and profitable industry to
complement particular grazing areas'. [64]
16.50 The Australian Native Bushfood Industry Council represents all aspects of the industry, from wild
harvesters, growers, manufacturers, processors, retailers and Aboriginal communities. In its submission
to the Committee, the Council highlighted a number of issues which need to be addressed nationally.
These were:
- the need for long-term re-education of conventional farmers and graziers, encouraging native
species plantations to repair erosion, overgrazing or land clearing practices;
- urgent and ongoing education to all, regarding the commercial and environmental realities of the
industry and how they can be managed to ensure environmental sustainability and commercial
profit;
- ongoing research and development to (further) identify the commercial scope of the species;
- protection of Australia's rich genetic resources ensuring the industry is not lost to offshore
enterprises (as happened with the macadamia);
- management of the transition process from wild harvesting to commercial production ensuring
maintenance of genetically important natural habitats; and
- an assessment of the differing oxalate/toxic component levels found to occur naturally in
bushfoods and how these levels are affected by environment, climate and self- or out-crossing.
[65]
16.51 The Australia Native Bushfood Industry Council, in evidence to the Committee, stressed the fact
that a number of environmental benefits could be attributed to the growth in interest in native produce.
Native vegetation could now be viewed as a resource and farmers wanting to revegetate could now
begin to do so with native species with a view to farm income diversification. This in turn resulted in
benefits such as provision of habitat for native wildlife, decreased erosion and salination, decreased
susceptibility to drought and a reduction in the use of fertilisers and biocides. [66]
16.52 Attitudes to the use of native plants as food have changed considerably over the last decade and
bushfoods present an opportunity for new culinary flavours. The benefits of bushfoods include the fact
that most are naturally high in acid and therefore do not require artificial preservatives and have a long
shelf-life, they hold their colour well and look attractive. Bushfoods generally have a high nutritional
value; wattle seed for example, has a higher protein level than meat. [67] Bushfoods now retail in a large
number of supermarkets throughout Australia and ingredients are being used increasingly in restaurants
and by airlines and railways for catering. [68]
16.53 While the bushfoods industry is young and expanding, in the opinion of the Council, it is not
'buoyant' and is in need of assistance and guidance from the Council, and support from government. [69]
The industry is totally comprised of small business, which are largely undercapitalised. There is concern
among these business that, once the problems with production and marketing have been resolved, larger
companies will 'come in and take it away'. [70]
16.54 According to the Australian Rainforest Bushfood Industry Association, the issues of particular
interest to the bushfood industry include:
- the on-going identification of those bushfoods with marketable merits;
- the development of relevant cuisine and food standards;
- genetic selection and horticultural production; and
- the setting up of marketing and investment infrastructure. [71]
16.55 Another issue of concern, both to the bushfood industry and to Aboriginal people, is the question
of rights to traditional Aboriginal knowledge about bushfoods. As highlighted by the Australian
Rainforest Bushfood Industry Association:
In accepting and respecting a marriage between the two cultures in the bushfood industry, it is necessary
to acknowledge that various view points will be occasionally presented. These times are an opportunity
to learn about each other's culture and how to work together as a model of grass-roots reconciliation.
[72]
16.56 A recent study commissioned by RIRDC, identified a number of issues related to production,
processing, manufacture, wholesaling and retailing. The most important of these were: the lack of
genetically improved cultivars of most species; possible overplanting of some species and a danger of
oversupply of some bushfoods unless demand was increased; and lack of product quality and food
safety information. The report also noted that being an Australian product or a 'novelty' product alone
was not sufficient to justify high retail prices and that harvesting and production costs must be sufficiently
low for bushfood produce to be more acceptable to main-stream manufacturers and to allow for a
competitive 'shelf' price. [73]
Plant Property Rights
16.57 The question of property rights to native cultivars was of concern to people in both the wildflower
and bushfood industries. [74] It is also important in the context of pharmaceutical companies which wish
to use native Australian plants for research and development.
16.58 While plant variety rights allows the registration of cultivated varieties in Australia, and to date a
dozen or more varieties of native species have already been registered with the Plant Breeders Rights
Office, [75] businesses have no control over native Australian plant material that is taken out of the
country and cultivated overseas.
16.59 The Committee notes that the issue of plant genetic resources is being addressed by a
Commonwealth-State working Group on Access to Australia's Biological resources and also by the
Plant Genetic Resource Advisory Committee under ARMCANZ.
Summary and Conclusions
16.60 Over the last decade in Australia there has been a dramatic expansion in the range of native plants
used for commercial purposes. These include native wildflowers, garden plants, essential oils, bushfood
and other specialist applications. There is also increasing interest in native plants for medicinal and
pharmaceutical applications. The use of products from these industries in Australia and their export has
assisted in the development of a truly Australia identity.
16.61 The Committee notes the concern of conservation groups that environmental damage could occur
through poorly managed plant harvesting practices. However, the Committee received no clear and
convincing evidence that current plant harvesting practices were causing widespread or irreversible
environmental damage. The Committee urges Federal and state governments to continue to
adequately monitor the environmental impact of harvesting activities.
16.62 However, the Committee did receive evidence that not only did plant harvesting have the potential
to benefit the environment by providing incentives to preserve habitat, but that these benefits were
already being realised. The Committee believes that industries based on Australian native plants
should continue to receive government assistance in areas of research and development and
that bodies such as RIRDC should continue to assist in the identification of economically and
environmentally viable plant-based industries.
16.63 The Committee notes that considerable potential exists for the identification of plants
which may have medicinal or pharmaceutical applications and urges government to assist
industry in this area. The Committee also notes that indigenous people have a strong
affiliation with and knowledge of plants in their traditional lands and believes that efforts
should continue to be made to include Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders in such
projects, particularly in the tropical north of Australia.
Footnotes
[1] Evidence, p. RRA&T 21.
[2] Evidence, p. RRA&T 22.
[3] RIRDC 1994 The Australian Wildflower Industry – A Review (A Report for RIRDC by Karingal
Consultants) Research Paper No. 94/9, ISBN 064220478, p. xiv.
[4] Submission No. 296, p. 4.
[5] RIRDC 1996 op cit, p. 25.
[6] Submission No. 329, Appendix 15 Wildlife Licences Issued in 1995-96 (Western Australia).
[7] Evidence, p. RRA&T 470.
[8] Evidence, p. RRA&T 475.
[9] Evidence, p. RRA&T 471.
[10] Evidence, p. RRA&T 472-3.
[11] Evidence, p. RRA&T 524-5.
[12] RIRDC 1996 Program Plans and Guidelines for Researchers 1997-1998, ISBN 0642246076,
p. 25.
[13] Evidence, p. RRA&T 471, 475.
[14] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1118.
[15] RIRDC, 1996 R&D Plan for the Wildflower and Native Plants Program 1995-2000, ISBN
0642246106.
[16] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1128.
[17] RIRDC 1996 op cit, p. 25.
[18] Submission No. 296, p. 4.
[19] CALM, Management of Commercial Harvesting of Protected Flora in Western Australia 1
July 1995 to 30 June 1998.
[20] Evidence, p. RRA&T 522.
[21] Evidence, p. RRA&T 514.
[22] Evidence, p. RRA&T 487. Other submissions expressing concern about over-harvesting included
Submission No.s 22, 48, 60, 203.
[23] Evidence, p. RRA&T 649.
[24] Submission No. 22, p. 2.
[25] Evidence, p. RRA&T 522.
[26] Submission No. 296, p. 4.
[27] Evidence, p. RRA&T 902; Submission No. 338, p. 1; Submission No. 315, p. 11.
[28] Response to questions taken on notice, Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Tasmania,
dated 6 February 1998.
[29] Submission No. 299, p. 4.
[30] Submission No. 88, p. 5.
[31] Submission No. 318, p. 3.
[32] Submission No.s 22, 139.
[33] Submission No. 198, p. 61.
[34] Submission No. 318, p.3.
[35] Submission No. 198, pp. 60-61.
[36] Submission No. 22, p. 1.
[37] Submission No. 198, p. 62.
[38] Submission No. 22, p. 2.
[39] Response to questions taken on notice, Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Tasmania,
dated 6 February 1998.
[40] RIRDC 1996 op cit, p. 21.
[41] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1118, Submission No. 296, p. 3.
[42] RIRDC 1996 R&D Plan for the Essential Oils op cit, p. 9.
[43] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1130.
[44] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1130.
[45] RIRDC 1996 op cit, p. 21.
[46] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1122-3.
[47] Evidence, pp. RRA&T 903-4, 1007, 1131; for more information, see RIRDC Final Report
Tasmannia lanceolata – A New Natural Flavour Product, December 1995.
[48] Response to questions taken on notice, Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Tasmania,
dated 6 February 1998.
[49] RIRDC 1996 op cit, p. 21.
[50] RIRDC 1996 R&D Plan for the Essential Oils, op cit, p. 9.
[51] Submission No. 296, p. 3.
[52] RIRDC 1996 R&D Plan for the Essential Oils, op cit, p. 13.
[53] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1129.
[54] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1123.
[55] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1129.
[56] Submission No. 296, p. 3.
[57] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1123.
[58] RIRDC 1996 op cit, p. 24.
[59] See for example, Robins, J 1997 Wild Lime - Cooking from the Bushfood Garden, Allen &
Unwin, ISBN 1 86448 082 3.
[60] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1118.
[61] Submission No. 198, p. 38.
[62] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1120-1122.
[63] Evidence, p. RRA&T 5-6.
[64] Evidence, p. RRA&T 6.
[65] Submission No. 304, p. 3.
[66] Evidence, p. RRA&T 994, 999.
[67] Evidence, p. RRA&T 997.
[68] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1000.
[69] Evidence, p. RRA&T 999.
[70] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1001.
[71] Australian Rainforest Bushfood Industry Association, Newsletter No. 1, Autumn 1996, PO Box
6407, Lismore NSW 2480, p. 3 President's Report.
[72] ibid.
[73] 1997 Prospects for the Australian Native Bushfood Industry – A report prepared for the Rural
Industries Research and Development Corporation by Caroline Graham and Denise Hart, RIRDC
Research Paper No 97/22, ISBN 0642246424, pp. 1-2.
[74] Evidence, pp. RRA&T 472, 1000.
[75] Evidence, p. RRA&T 6.