08 November 2023
PDF Version [684KB]
Dr Robyn
Prior and Tim Brennan
Science, Technology,
Environment and Resources section
Contents
Introduction
This paper describes the current state of research and
development (R&D) expenditure and innovation in Australia. It also
summarises the key metrics used to measure both investment in R&D and
innovation in Australia, and how to locate this and related data. A summary of
R&D metrics, including definitions, is provided in Table 1.
State
of R&D and innovation in Australia
This section collates the most recent data on R&D
expenditure and innovation in Australia. More information on what is included
in each R&D category is available below in Key Data Sources.
In 2021–22, gross expenditure on research and development
(GERD) was estimated at $38.8 billion and 1.68% as a proportion of
gross domestic product (GDP).[1]
GERD represents total R&D expenditure by business, government, higher
education and private non-profit sectors. This is the most recent estimated
GERD figure, published in August 2023.
In 2021–22, business expenditure on research and
development (BERD) was $20.6 billion.[2]
This is the most recent estimated BERD figure, released in August 2023.
In the 2020 calendar year, higher education
expenditure on research and development (HERD) was $12.7 billion.[3]
This is the most recent HERD figure, released in May 2022. Further
information on HERD and university research funding is available in this Parliamentary
Library quick guide.
In 2020–21, government expenditure on research and
development (GOVERD) was $3.6 billion, with $2.3 billion (65%)
from Australian Government organisations and $1.3 billion (35%) from state
and territory government organisations.[4]
These are the most recent GOVERD figures, released in June 2022.
In 2022–23, government budget allocations for research
and development (GBARD) were estimated at $9 billion.[5]
This is the most recent estimate of GBARD, released in April 2023. As
described in Table 1, GBARD should not be confused with GOVERD. GBARD
includes both R&D expenditure from departmental funds and R&D support
from administered funds. Expenditure is spread across the government, business
and higher education sectors, depending on where the R&D actually takes
place.
In 2022–23, total government R&D support (GBARD plus
tax incentives) was forecast to be $12.1 billion and 0.49% of GDP.[6]
This is the most recent estimate of total government R&D support, released
in April 2023. Total government R&D support (including GBARD) should
not be confused with GERD.
In 2023, the Global Innovation
Index ranked Australia:
- 24th
out of 132 countries listed
- 23rd
out of the 50 high-income economies listed
- 6th
out of the 16 economies in Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania.[7]
R&D in
Australia at a glance
Figure 1 shows the breakdown of R&D spending (GERD) by
sector as reported by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS).
Figure 1 Gross expenditure on research and development by sector
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Research and
Experimental Development, Businesses, Australia, cat.
no. 8104.0 (Canberra: ABS, 25 August 2023). Real figures based on Library
calculations.
The Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) collects GERD as a proportion of GDP data
which enables comparisons over time of R&D spending between nations, and
the OECD average (see Figure 2). The OECD also collects and reports on
total government investment in R&D, reported as the sum of GBARD and
R&D tax credits (see Figure 3). In Australia, this information is
reported in the Science, Research and Innovation Budget Tables (SRI Budget
Tables; see Key Data Sources below for more information).
Figure 2 Gross expenditure on research and development as a percentage of GDP
GDP = gross
domestic product; OECD data is the average across OECD nations.
Sources: OECD data: ‘OECD Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) Scoreboard’, OECD website;[8]
Australian figures (2010 and 2011):Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Research and Experimental Development, Businesses,
Australia, cat. no. 8104.0 (Canberra: ABS, 25 August 2023);
Australian figures (2013 onward): Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Research and Experimental Development, Businesses,
Australia, cat. no. 8104.0 (Canberra: ABS, 25 August
2023).
Figure 3 Total government
R&D support as a percentage of GDP
Notes: Total government
R&D support refers to the sum of GBARD and R&D tax credits. OECD data is the average across OECD
nations.
Source: ‘OECD
Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Scoreboard’, OECD webpage.[9]
How is
investment in R&D measured?
First released in 1963, the OECD’s Frascati
manual: guidelines for collecting and reporting data on research and
experimental development (Frascati Manual) has long provided
a ‘common language for talking about R&D [research and experimental
development] and its outcomes’.[10]
The seventh, and most recent, edition of the Frascati Manual was released in
2015 and provides an internationally recognised methodology for collecting and
using R&D statistics.
The Frascati Manual defines R&D as:
[Research and experimental development (R&D)] comprise
creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of
knowledge – including knowledge of humankind, culture and society – and to
devise new applications of available knowledge.[11]
The Frascati Manual adds that for an activity to be
considered an R&D activity it must be ‘novel, creative, uncertain,
systematic, [and] transferable and/or reproducible’.[12]
R&D applies to 3 types of activities:
- basic
research – which is ‘experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to
acquire new knowledge … without any particular application or use in view’
- applied
research – which also aims to acquire new knowledge but with a ‘specific,
practical aim or objective’
- experimental
development – which is systematic work drawing on previous research which aims
at ‘producing new products or processes or to improving existing products or
processes’.[13]
The manual describes 2 different, but complementary,
ways of measuring how much governments invest in R&D called the funder-based
and performer-based approaches.[14]
The funder-based approach measures the funding sources of
R&D and is the approach used in the annual SRI Budget Tables, which are
discussed further below. In Australia, the key funder-based measurements are
the government budget allocations for R&D (GBARD) and the funding of
industry R&D tax measures (currently the R&D
Tax Incentive). The combination of these figures is referred to as the
government’s ‘total R&D investment’ (SRI Budget Tables) or ‘total
government support of R&D’ (OECD).
The performer-based approach considers what funds were used
by different sectors for R&D activities. The ABS determines the total
R&D expenditure (GERD) by the business (BERD), government (GOVERD), higher
education (HERD) and private non-profit (PNPERD) sectors in Australia.
As noted in the Frascati Manual, there are likely to be
differences between the values calculated using these 2 different
approaches for a range of reasons, including sampling difficulties and
tracking/reporting differences.[15]
As a result, it is not appropriate to directly compare funder-based and
performer-based figures.
How
is innovation measured?
First published in 1992, the OECD’s Oslo
manual: guidelines for collecting, reporting and using data on innovation
(Oslo Manual) is the equivalent to the Frascati Manual in the field of
innovation measurement. The most recent edition of the Oslo Manual (the fourth
edition published in 2018) defines innovation as:
An innovation is a new or improved product or process (or
combination thereof) that differs significantly from the unit’s previous
products or processes and that has been made available to potential users
(product) or brought into use by the unit (process).[16]
The Oslo Manual notes that this definition relates to
innovation as an outcome, but the term can also be used to describe a process.
The manual uses the term ‘innovation activities’ to describe
innovation-as-a-process, which it defines as ‘all developmental, financial and
commercial activities undertaken by a firm that are intended to result in an
innovation for the firm’.[17]
The Oslo Manual highlights 8 activities that
firms can undertake in the pursuit of innovation:
-
R&D activities
-
engineering, design and other creative work activities
-
marketing and brand equity activities
-
intellectual property (IP) related activities
-
employee training activities
-
software development and database activities
-
activities relating to the acquisition or lease of tangible
assets
-
innovation management activities.[18]
The Oslo Manual notes, however, that these activities
can also be undertaken for reasons not related to innovation and highlights
that the ‘measurement of expenditures on innovation activities other than
R&D is an ongoing challenge’.[19]
The manual recommends that national governments make use of business
innovation surveys to collect data on business innovation (see Chapter 9).
This data is collected in Australia by the ABS through the Business
Characteristics Survey, which is discussed further below.
Another way to measure innovation is to construct innovation
indicators, which aggregate data from a range of sources. Indicators can be
useful for ‘exploratory analysis of innovation activities, for tracking
innovation performance over time and for comparing the innovation performance
of countries, regions, and industries’.[20]
Innovation indicators include the Global Innovation Index and the ABS
Innovation Index, both discussed below.
Key data sources
SRI
Budget Tables
Australian Government R&D expenditure is reported each
year in the SRI
Budget Tables. This reporting extends
back to 1979-80. In recent years, the SRI Budget Tables have been published
both as an interactive
dashboard and as a downloadable Excel
spreadsheet. The most recent edition, providing data for the 2022–23
financial year, was published in April 2023.
The SRI Budget Tables use a funder-based approach to
measuring government support for R&D, which involves ‘identifying all those
Australia Government R&D-related programs and activities whose immediate
sources of funding is a budgetary appropriation, and then measuring or
estimating their R&D content’.[21]
The SRI Budget Tables use the Frascati Manual framework to
report R&D spending. The investments reported include both R&D
expenditure from departmental funds and R&D support from administered funds,
as well as revenue foregone through the R&D Tax Incentive. The tables
exclude expenditures where funding was not through an appropriation but sourced
from another organisation. This means that funding sourced from the market or
from another government agency is not included, reducing the risk of double
counting.[22]
In addition to R&D expenditure, since 2018–19 the SRI
Budget Tables have reported on non-R&D innovation expenditure. This is
reported in the ‘Other SRI’ and the ‘KT & RC’ (knowledge transfer and
research commercialisation) spreadsheet tabs.[23]
The SRI Budget Tables provide a range of useful information.
Examples include:
- funding
information on R&D and innovation activities at the program or activity
level (see the ‘R&D’, ‘Other SRI’, and ‘KT & RC’ tabs)
- consolidated
funding information for Australia’s major R&D programs or activities (those
valued at over $100 million, such as the R&D Tax Incentive, the CSIRO,
and the Research Training and Research Support programs); figures are provided
in current and inflation‑adjusted prices (see the ‘Programs’ tab or
page 4 of the dashboard)
- figures
for Australia’s GBARD and ‘total R&D investment’ (which includes GBARD and
Industry R&D Tax Measures)
- Australia’s
total investment in R&D. To enable comparison across time, this figure is
also presented in inflation‑adjusted prices and as a percentage of GDP
and includes a historical dataset back to 1978–79 (see the ‘Sector’ tab).
ABS R&D expenditure data
The ABS R&D surveys provide data on R&D expenditure
by business, government, higher education and private non-profit sectors.
Business
expenditure on R&D (BERD) is obtained using the biennial Survey
of Research and Experimental Development (R&D), Businesses. In addition
to total funding figures, the survey also provides data on:
- BERD
as a proportion of GDP and as a proportion of gross state product (GSP) for
each of the states and territories
- BERD
by location of expenditure
- BERD
by field of research and socio-economic objective
- business
human resources devoted to R&D.[24]
BERD data is also used as an input into the ABS Australian
National Accounts expenditure item ‘Private; Gross Fixed Capital Formation –
Intellectual property products – Research and development’ (described in
further detail in Table 1).
Higher
education expenditure on R&D (HERD) is obtained using the biennial Survey
of Research and Experimental Development, Higher Education Organisations.
In addition to total funding figures, the survey also provides data on:
- HERD
as a proportion of GDP and GSP
- HERD
by field of research
- the
funding split between pure basic research, strategic basic research, applied
research, and experimental development
- source
of funding
- higher
education human resources devoted to R&D.
Government
expenditure on R&D (GOVERD) is obtained using the Survey
of Research and Experimental Development, Government and Private Non-Profit
Organisations. In addition to total funding figures, the survey also
provides data on:
- GOVERD
as a proportion of GDP and GSP
- GOVERD
by location of expenditure
- GOVERD
by field of research and socio-economic objective
- funding
sourced from the Australian Government and an aggregate of funding from the
state and territory governments
- government
human resources devoted to R&D.
Private
non-profit expenditure on R&D (PNPERD) is obtained using the same
survey as the GOVERD figures referenced above. In addition to total funding
figures, the survey also provides data on:
- PNPERD
as a proportion of GDP and GSP
- PNPERD
by location of expenditure
- PNPERD
by field of research and socio-economic objective
- type
of expenditure and source of funds
- private
non-profit human resources devoted to R&D.
Gross
expenditure on R&D (GERD) is currently obtained using
both the most recent BERD data and time series modelling to produce
estimates for government, private non-profit and higher education sectors.
Information is also presented as GERD
as a proportion of GDP, using the most recent GDP
values available.
This figure is often discussed by stakeholders, with several science
and research
advocacy groups calling for Australia to adopt a target for GERD to reach 3% of
GDP.
The methodology explanatory notes for each R&D survey
listed in this section refer to the Frascati definition of R&D as quoted
above.[25]
For a more comprehensive definition, the ABS refers to the Frascati Manual and
the Australian
and New Zealand Standard Research Classification (ANZSRC), 2020. The ANZSRC
is a set of classifications that allows the comparison of R&D data with
other countries based on type of activity, fields of research and socio-economic
objectives.[26]
Originally developed in 2008 by the ABS and Statistics New Zealand
(StatsNZ), the ANZSRC was updated in 2020 following a joint review
by the ABS, the Australian Research Council, StatsNZ and the New Zealand
Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment.
OECD Main Science and
Technology Indicators
The OECD Main
Science and Technology Indicators website provides summary reports and
access to tables which enable comparisons between countries based on different
measures and in different years. Indicators of R&D expenditure are derived
from the OECD Research
and Development Statistics Database. The OECD Science, Technology and
Innovation Scoreboard is a tool that allows users to generate charts of
interest. Specific indicators that can be selected include:
- GBARD
as a percentage of GDP
- total
government support of R&D (GBARD plus tax incentives)
- GERD,
BERD, HERD, GOVERD and PNPERD as a percentage of GDP.
ABS innovation in Australian business data
The ABS collects innovation
in Australian business data using the Business
Characteristics Survey (BCS), which draws on the Oslo Manual. The
BCS was recently redeveloped, taking into consideration recommendations from
the 2018-19 Innovation
Metrics Review. The
BCS now comprises an Innovation module and a Digital Activities Module, with
data to be collected in alternate years. The most recent release of data
collected using the Innovation Module was in July 2022, for the
2020–21 financial year.
The ABS has described efforts to develop a composite
indicator, the Innovation
Index, using data collected in the BCS Innovation Module. Ratings for
3 separate innovation factors, ‘novelty of goods and services (products)
or processes developed, management capability regarding innovation and
collaboration activity related to innovation’, are combined to form a single
Innovation Index measure. Each of the separate factors and the Innovation Index
are given a rating of very high, high, medium or low.
Australian
Innovation System Monitor
Monitoring
and analysis of Australian innovation was provided in a series of
Australian Innovation System Reports (published
annually since 2010) and the subsequent interactive Australian
Innovation System Monitor (last updated in October 2021). The ‘Quick
Links’ tab of the Australian Innovation System Monitor provides a summary of
key data sources and indicators used. Performance is discussed under the
separate ‘Business Innovation’, ‘Entrepreneurship’, ‘Science and Research’,
‘Networks and Collaboration’, and ‘Skills and Capability’ tabs.
Global
Innovation Index
Since 2012, the World
Intellectual Property Organization has published the annual Global Innovation Index
(GII). The 2023 edition of the GII included information on the innovation
system of 132 countries. Each country is provided with an overall score
and ranking, as well as a ranking in each of 2 sub-indexes,
7 pillars, and 80 indicators.[27]
Each country’s overall GII score is based on its average for
the following 2 innovation sub‑indexes:
- The
innovation input sub-index, which measures ‘elements of the economy that enable
and facilitate innovative activities’.[28]
The input sub-index includes indicators measuring performance across the
pillars of institutions, human capital and research, infrastructure, market
sophistication, and business sophistication.[29]
- The
innovation output sub-index, which measures ‘the result of innovative
activities within the economy’.[30]
The output sub-index includes indicators measuring performance across the
pillars of knowledge and technology outputs, and creative outputs.[31]
In the 2023 edition of the GII, Australia ranked 24th of the
132 countries listed. Australia ranked 16th on the innovation input sub-index
and 30th on the innovation output sub-index.[32]
In addition to the annual global report, economy briefs for
Australia and other countries included in the analysis can be downloaded from
the Global
Innovation Index 2023 website.
Table
1 Summary of R&D metrics
| Metric (measurement
method) |
Definition (quotes from Frascati Manual unless otherwise noted) |
Source |
|
BERD: Business enterprise expenditure on R&D (performer‑based approach)
|
BERD ‘represents the
component of GERD incurred by units belonging to the Business enterprise
sector’ (p. 365).
The business enterprise
sector comprises both private and public enterprises including:
- all resident corporations, regardless of the
residence of their shareholder, and all other types of enterprises (not only
legally incorporated enterprises) set up to engage in market production for
the financial benefit of their owners
- ‘unincorporated branches of non-resident enterprises
are deemed to be resident because they are engaged in production on the
economic territory for a long-term basis’
- non-profit resident enterprises offering goods or
services to market. (p. 366)
|
BERD is calculated by the ABS.
BERD is reported to the
OECD via the Research and Development Statistics and is available for international comparisons at the OECD’s Main
Science and Technology Indicators
(MSTI).
|
|
GBARD: Government budget allocations for R&D
(funder-based approach)
|
GBARD ‘encompasses all
spending allocations met from sources of government revenue foreseen within
the budget, such as taxation’ (p. 370).
GBARD does not include
R&D financing by public corporations using funding raised in the market
(p. 370). Also, it does not include tax relief to corporations for
R&D.
The SRI Budget Tables note
that although Frascati states that GBARD is intended to include all levels of
government, the SRI Budget Tables do not include state and local government
funding as that data is not available (see ‘About SRI’ tab).
As GBARD is a funder-based
approach, it differs from performer-based approaches such as government
financed GERD and GOVERD. Frascati outlines the differences between these
metrics on pages 340–1.
|
GBARD is reported in the SRI Budget Tables.
GBARD is reported to the
OECD via the Research and Development Statistics and is available for international comparisons at
the OECD’s MSTI.
Also included are international comparisons of total government support
(GBARD plus tax credits), see Figure 3.
|
|
GERD: Gross expenditure on R&D (performer‑based
approach)
|
GERD is the ‘total
intramural expenditure on R&D performed in the national territory during
a specific reference period’ and is the main statistic used to describe a
country’s total R&D expenditure (p. 111).
GERD is an estimated figure
based on calculated BERD, GOVERD, HERD and PNPERD values. GERD can also
include ‘Rest of the world’ expenditure, which refers to domestically
performed R&D funded from abroad (although this does not appear to be
included in ABS data). GERD does not include domestic funding for R&D
performed overseas (pp. 111, 298).
In addition to being
reported as a total dollar figure, GERD is reported as a percentage of GDP to
assist in international comparison.
|
GERD is calculated for
Australia by the ABS. GERD is reported as part of the ABS BERD release.
GERD is reported to the
OECD via the Research and Development Statistics and is available for international comparisons at
the OECD’s MSTI.
|
|
GOVERD: Government expenditure on R&D (performer‑based
approach)
|
GOVERD ‘represents the
component of GERD incurred by units belonging to the Government sector’
(p. 371).
GOVERD includes federal,
state, and local government sectors and non-profit institutions controlled by
government units (p. 371). It does not include expenditure by higher
education providers (HERD) or by government business enterprises (which would
be included in BERD or in some cases HERD – see pp. 237–40). Also,
GOVERD may not include work undertaken by consultants on behalf of government
(p. 248).
GOVERD should not be
confused with:
- expenditure by the ‘public sector’ or ‘government
financed GERD’ (see p. 252), which would include both public higher
education providers and government business enterprise sector
- GBARD (see entry above), which is a funder-based
approach.
|
GOVERD is calculated for
Australia by the ABS.
GOVERD is reported to the
OECD via the Research and Development Statistics and is available for international comparisons at
the OECD’s MSTI.
|
|
HERD: Higher education expenditure on R&D (performer‑based approach)
|
HERD ‘represents the
component of GERD incurred by units belonging to the Higher education sector’
(p. 372).
This includes R&D
spending by all enterprises that engage in tertiary education as well as
research institutes that are under the control or administration of tertiary
education providers. There are multiple complexities in identifying the
proportion of university income devoted to R&D as opposed to education or
administration, as discussed in Chapter 9 of Frascati.
|
HERD is calculated for
Australia by the ABS.
HERD is reported to OECD
via the Research and Development Statistics and is available for international comparisons at
the OECD’s MSTI.
|
|
Intramural R&D
expenditures
|
Intramural expenditures
includes all ‘current expenditures plus gross fixed capital expenditures
for R&D performed within a statistical unit during a specific period of
time’ (p. 374).
Examples of statistical
units could include businesses, higher education providers, or nations.
Intramural expenditure includes all expenditure undertaken by the unit
regardless of the source of funds; this differs from ‘internal expenditure’,
which would not include R&D activities funded from an external source.
The summing of intramural spending by units within a sector produces
sector-based statistics (such as BERD or HERD), and the summation for all
sectors produces GERD statistics.
|
|
|
PNPERD: Private and non-profit expenditure on R&D (performer‑based
approach)
|
PNPERD ‘represents the
component of GERD incurred by units belonging to the Private non-profit
sector’ (p. 377).
This sector is comprised of
‘non-profit institutions serving households’. Examples can include
charities, professional and learned societies, and non-government
organisations. This sector is residual in nature, in that it includes
non-profit organisations that cannot be included in HERD or BERD figures. See
Chapter 10 of Frascati, particularly Table 10.1 (p. 289), for
further information on the types of organisations included in PNPERD figures.
|
PNPERD is calculated for
Australia by the ABS.
PNPERD is reported to OECD
via the Research and Development Statistics and is available for international comparisons at
the OECD’s MSTI.
|
|
Private gross fixed
capital formation (intellectual property products – research and development)
This is an expenditure item
reported in the Australian National Accounts
|
The ABS Concepts, sources and methods publication provides a comprehensive description of gross fixed
capital formation of R&D, and explains how annual private gross fixed
capital formation – intellectual property products amounts are determined.
BERD data is identified as one of the inputs used in R&D expenditure
estimate calculations (pp. 297–298).
The ABS Australian National Accounts: National Income,
Expenditure and Product publication includes a time series spreadsheet, ‘Table 3. Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), Current prices’, that
contains quarterly ‘Private; Gross Fixed Capital Formation - Intellectual
property products - Research and development’ figures dating back to 1959
(see ‘Data1’ tab, column BJ).
A similar time series
spreadsheet, ‘Table 2. Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product
(GDP)’, contains annual ‘Private,
Gross Fixed Capital Formation - Intellectual property products – Research and
development’ figures dating back to 1986 (see ‘Data1’ tab, column U).
|
Private gross fixed capital
formation (intellectual property products – research and development) is
calculated by the ABS.
Data on this metric is
published in both the annual and
quarterly
National Accounts.
|
[1]. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Research
and Experimental Development, Businesses, Australia, cat. no. 8104.0
(Canberra: ABS, 25 August 2023).
[2]. ABS, Research
and Experimental Development, Businesses, Australia.
[3]. ABS, Research
and Experimental Development, Higher Education Organisations, Australia,
cat. no. 8111.0 (Canberra: ABS, 6 May 2022).
[4]. ABS, Research
and Experimental Development, Government and Private Non-Profit Organisations,
Australia, cat. no. 8109.0 (Canberra: ABS, 15 June 2022).
[5]. Department of
Industry, Science and Resources (DISR), Science,
research and innovation (SRI) budget tables 2022–23, (Canberra: DISR,
28 April 2023) (refer to Sector tab, Table 2 of the SRI Budget Tables
spreadsheet, which can be downloaded from this website).
[6]. DISR, 2022–23
SRI Budget Tables – the downloadable SRI Budget spreadsheet contained
the % of GDP calculations. SRI Budget Tables use the word investment
instead of support.
[7]. World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Global
Innovation Index 2023: Innovation in the face of uncertainty, (Geneva:
WIPO, 2023); WIPO, Australia,
(Economy Brief From the Global Innovation Index 2023), (Geneva: WIPO, 2023), 1.
The 2023 report and economy briefs are available from the ‘Global Innovation
Index 2023’ webpage. The 2022 report and economy briefs are available from
the ‘Global
Innovation Index: Analysis‘ webpage.
[8]. This data can be accessed on the OECD STI Scoreboard Platform
through the following menu structure from the platform's drop‑down
filter: Explore by databases (or data families) / Research and Development
(R&D)/ R&D performance by institutional sectors / Gross domestic
expenditure on R&D / GERD as a percentage of GDP.
[9]. This data can
be accessed on the OECD STI
Scoreboard Platform through the following menu structure from the
platform’s drop‑down filter: Explore by databases (or data families) /
Research and Development (R&D)/ Government R&D Budgets/ GBARD in
selected socio-economic objectives/ Total government support of R&D (GBARD
plus tax incentives)/ Total government support (GBARD and tax credits) as a
percentage of GDP.
[10]. Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Frascati
Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and
Experimental Development (The Measurement of Scientific, Technological
and Innovation Activities), (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2015), 19.
[11]. OECD, Frascati
Manual, 28.
[12]. OECD, 28.
[13]. OECD, 29.
[14]. OECD, 127.
[15]. OECD, 141–143.
[16]. OECD and
Eurostat, Oslo
Manual 2018: Guidelines for Collecting, Reporting and Using Data on Innovation,
4th Edition, (The Measurement of Scientific,
Technological and Innovation Activities), (Paris: OECD Publishing / Luxembourg:
Eurostat, 2018), 20.
[17]. OECD and
Eurostat, Oslo Manual, 34.
[18]. OECD and
Eurostat, 35.
[19]. OECD and
Eurostat, 35.
[20]. OECD and
Eurostat, 214.
[21]. DISR, 2022–23
SRI Budget Tables, see the ‘About SRI’ tab.
[22]. DISR, 2022–23
SRI Budget Tables, see the ‘Notes’ tab.
[23]. DISR, 2022–23
SRI Budget Tables, see the ‘Notes’ tab.
[24]. The metric used
by the ABS to measure human resources devoted to R&D data is ‘person
years of effort’ (PYE). PYE is defined as: ‘One person year of effort is
equal to a full-time employee whose time is wholly devoted to R&D for a
whole year’ (see ‘Person years of effort (PYE)’ under the ‘Glossary’ drop‑down
heading).
[25]. ABS, Research
and Experimental Development, Businesses, Australia methodology,
(Canberra: ABS, 3 September 2021); ABS, Research
and Experimental Development, Higher Education Organisations, Australia
methodology, (Canberra: ABS, 6 May 2022); ABS, Research
and Experimental Development, Government and Private Non-Profit Organisations,
Australia methodology, (Canberra: ABS, 15 June 2022).
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