   RESEARCH PAPER SERIES, 2020–21   updated 23 MARCH 2021

The Higher Education Loan Program (HELP) and related loans: a chronology

Carol Ey

Social Policy Section

Introduction

Basic features of the Higher Education Loan Program (HELP) and related loans schemes

Brief history of the HELP scheme

The origin of the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS)—the Committee on Higher Education Funding Committee

Modification of HECS

Introduction of the Higher Education Loans Program (HELP)

HECS-HELP and national priority fields of study

Cessation of VET FEE-HELP

Changes to repayment arrangements

Job Ready Graduates Package

Key statistics

Table 1: Number of HELP and VET Student loans by type of loan, 2005 to 2019

Table 2: Number of individuals with HELP debt and the total HELP debt balance, 2005–06 to 2019–20(a)

Chronology of changes to the Higher Education Loan Program

Appendices

Appendix A: HECS-HELP contribution rates, 1989 to 2021

Appendix C: HELP debts written off and average repayment periods, 2005–06 to 2019-20

List of acronyms

All hyperlinks in this paper were correct as at February 2021

Introduction

Since 1989, student contributions through the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) and its replacement, the Higher Education Loan Program (HELP), have been an integral part of the Australian higher education system.

This research paper contains a brief summary of the development of HELP and related schemes, including the VET Student Loan Scheme, and includes some relevant statistics, as well as a detailed chronology of changes to the scheme. This publication does not cover other income-contingent student loans, such as Trade Support Loans and Student Start-up Loans. For a chronology of changes to student income support arrangements, see the Parliamentary Library publication Student income support: a chronology.¹

1 Basic features of the Higher Education Loan Program (HELP) and related loans schemes

HELP provides loans to students studying approved higher education courses to assist in the costs of their study. The VET Student Loans scheme (and the former VET FEE-HELP) provides similar loans to students studying approved higher level vocational education and training (VET) courses. Eligibility is limited to students who are Australian citizens, New Zealand citizens who meet specific residency and other criteria, and permanent humanitarian visa holders provided they are resident in Australia for the duration of their study. Permanent residents holding non-humanitarian visas are generally not eligible for HELP loans, unless they are undertaking bridging study for overseas-trained professionals, when they are eligible for FEE-HELP.

The major category of loan under the HELP scheme, HECS-HELP, is available to students enrolled in Commonwealth supported places (CSPs), and covers most domestic undergraduate and some coursework postgraduate students studying at Australian universities. Students in CSPs are generally required by their institution to contribute to their course costs. Maximum contribution amounts vary according to the field of study band for each unit. The maximum student contribution for each year from 1989 to 2021 is shown in Appendix A. Students can elect to pay this contribution up-front or can take out a HECS-HELP loan to cover the cost.

FEE-HELP is available to domestic full fee-paying higher education students to pay their tuition fees. These students are generally studying at private higher education institutions or are undertaking postgraduate coursework qualifications for which there is no CSP. Similarly VET Student Loans cover tuition costs for students undertaking approved VET courses.

SA-HELP provides a loan to pay all or part of the student services and amenities fee charged by most higher education providers.

Students enrolled in CSPs who undertake part of their studies overseas (typically on exchange or to undertake a work-based placement) are able to access OS-HELP. These loans are intended to cover costs such as airfares and accommodation, but there is no requirement for students to justify the loan amount (up to the maximum available).

All these loans are interest free, but the outstanding amount is indexed annually by the Consumer Price Index (CPI) to maintain the real value of the debt. An individual commences repaying their loan when their taxable income reaches a certain threshold. The rate at which the debt is repaid rises according to taxable income. The income thresholds and repayment rates for each tax year from 1989–90 to 2020–21 are shown in Appendix B.

2 Brief history of the HELP scheme

The origin of the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS)—the Committee on Higher Education Funding Committee

In December 1987, the Australian Government announced its commitment to expanding the capacity and effectiveness of the higher education sector but that budgetary circumstances meant it would be necessary to consider sources of funding involving the direct beneficiaries of higher education.² It established the Committee on Higher Education Funding (Wran Committee) to develop options and make recommendations for possible funding schemes which could involve contributions from students, graduates, their parents and employers.

The Wran Committee reported in April 1988, recommending a contribution scheme whereby higher education students would pay through their income tax obligations an additional two per cent of taxable income until they met 20 per cent of the cost of their higher education.³ The requirement to pay would arise only when the student's personal taxable income exceeded the average earnings of all working Australians.⁴ The Committee also recommended three levels of contributions: $1,500, $2,500 and $3,000 per annum (pa) depending upon the cost of the course.⁵ The report canvassed the possibility of allowing institutions to vary these charges by 15 per cent above and below the standard.⁶ Both the charges and the level of income contingency were to be indexed to maintain their real value, rather than imposing any interest payments.⁷ The report suggested that a discount be applied to 'up-front' payments, and that this discount would need to be around 40 per cent to be attractive in financial terms.⁸

In the August 1988 Budget, the Government announced that it had accepted most of the Wran Committee's recommendations, and that it would introduce the HECS on 1 January 1989.⁹ However, the scheme would have only one rate of contribution ($1,800 in 1989) and an up-front discount of 15 per cent.¹⁰ Unlike other Commonwealth debts, such as social security or taxation debts, HECS debts were discharged on death.¹¹ The legislative authority for the scheme was contained in the Higher Education Funding Act 1988.

Modification of HECS

In the years following its introduction there were a number of minor changes to HECS which are detailed in the Chronology below including:

• changes to the repayment rates and thresholds in 1990, 1992, 1994, 1996 and 1997

• increased incentives for up-front payments, with discounts also introduced for voluntary repayment of debt and

• the introduction of new schemes based on HECS repayment arrangements for specific groups of students, such as the Open Learning Deferred Payment Scheme (OLDPS) in 1994, and the Postgraduate Education Loans Scheme (PELS) and the Bridging for Overseas-Trained Professionals Loan Scheme (BORPLS) in 2002.

Introduction of the Higher Education Loans Program (HELP)

In the 2003–04 Budget, the Government announced major changes to the funding arrangements for higher education, which included the introduction of a new Higher Education Loans Program (HELP).¹² These changes were legislated in the Higher Education Support Act 2003 (HESA).

HECS was incorporated into the program as HECS-HELP, while FEE-HELP was introduced for full fee-paying courses, including those previously covered by OLDPS, PELS and BORPLS. Universities were given the flexibility to charge student contributions under HECS-HELP up to a maximum rate based on course funding clusters (fields of study bands), and repayment thresholds and rates were significantly revised. OS-HELP was introduced, enabling students studying overseas temporarily as part of their Australian qualification to take out a loan to cover costs such as airfares and accommodation.¹³

The HELP scheme was subsequently expanded, with the introduction of VET FEE-HELP in 2008, to provide loans on the same basis as FEE-HELP to students studying certain higher level VET qualifications.¹⁴ Originally proposed in 2009, SA-HELP was introduced in 2012 to allow students to take out a HELP loan to cover their student services and amenities fees.¹⁵ Following compliance issues with VET FEE-HELP, it was replaced by the VET Student Loans scheme in 2017.¹⁶

When they were established, both FEE-HELP (for undergraduate students) and OS-HELP attracted a 20 per cent loan fee. The initial proposed legislation did not include a loan fee, but incorporated an indexation cost of 3.5 per cent per annum in addition to the CPI on outstanding debts from these loans, presumably in recognition of the real costs of income-contingent loans. This was amended during debate to become a loan fee instead.¹⁷ The OS-HELP loan fee was abolished in 2010, but in 2011 the FEE-HELP loan fee was increased to 25 per cent (although the VET FEE-HELP loan fee remained at 20 per cent).¹⁸

A limit of $50,000 was placed on the total amount of money which could be borrowed under FEE-HELP. This was increased in 2007 to $80,000, or $100,000 (indexed) for courses in medicine, dentistry or veterinary science.¹⁹ When VET FEE-HELP was introduced, loans under this scheme were also included under the FEE-HELP loan cap.²⁰

The 2003–04 Budget announced that as part of these changes students would only be entitled to a maximum of five years full-time (or equivalent) study in a CSP (and hence eligible for HECS-HELP).²¹ This was later legislated for an entitlement of seven years.²² The restriction was removed in 2012.²³

Initially, there was a discount of 20 per cent for up-front payment of student contributions and a discount of 10 per cent for voluntary repayment of HELP debt. In the 2011–12 Budget these discounts were reduced to 10 per cent and 5 per cent respectively, and later, in the 2013–14 Budget, it was announced that that they would be abolished altogether, although this was not legislated until 2015.²⁴

HECS-HELP and national priority fields of study

As part of the 2003–04 Budget announcements, one of the student contribution rates introduced was a ‘national priorities’ band, which provided for reduced student contributions for those studying in designated priority fields, initially education and nursing.²⁵

In an attempt to encourage more students to study maths and science, the 2008–09 Budget included maths and science in the national priorities band, thus reducing the maximum student contribution for students in these areas.²⁶ In addition, students graduating from these fields were eligible for a 50 per cent reduction in their HECS-HELP repayments for up to five years (known as HECS-HELP benefit) if they worked in an occupation related to their studies, including teaching.²⁷ Early childhood education graduates also received HECS-HELP benefit if they worked in a relevant occupation and a designated location.²⁸

The 2009–10 Budget extended the reduction on HECS-HELP repayments to education and nursing graduates who worked in these fields—although rather than a 50 per cent reduction they were entitled to a flat rate reduction. However, at the same time these fields were removed from the national priorities student contribution funding cluster, thus increasing the maximum contributions students in these areas were required to pay.²⁹

The national priorities band for student contributions was discontinued in 2013, while removal of HECS-HELP benefit for all graduates was announced as part of the 2014–15 Budget changes, but not legislated until 2016.³⁰

Subsequently, incentives were introduced in 2020 for teachers and early childhood educators with education degrees to work in very remote locations.³¹ Indexation of their HELP debt is paused for the period they are working in these locations, and if they work in such areas for at least four years full-time equivalent in a six-year period, they receive a significant reduction in their HELP debt.³² This is the lesser of the amount of debt outstanding at the beginning of the period, and the cost of five years full-time of their education course.³³

Cessation of VET FEE-HELP

Rapid growth in the number of VET FEE-HELP loans from 2012 to 2015 raised concerns about potential abuse of the system.³⁴ Some additional constraints were imposed on providers in 2015, while the Government undertook consultations on the future of the program.³⁵ Following that process, legislation was introduced in 2016 to cease VET-FEE HELP and replace it with the VET Student Loans Scheme.³⁶

While existing students maintained access to VET FEE-HELP until 31 December 2018 under grandfathering provisions, the VET Student Payment Arrangements (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act 2021 requires providers to report any such debts before 1 January 2022 in order to finalise possible government or student liabilities.³⁷

Initially, VET Student Loan debts were included in HELP debts, which meant is was not possible to monitor the effectiveness on repayments of some of the changed requirements. Therefore, from 1 July 2019, VET Student Loan debts were separated from HELP debts.³⁸

Changes to repayment arrangements

The 2014–15 Budget proposed lowering the repayment threshold and introducing a new rate of two per cent for the initial repayment band, which was legislated in 2016.³⁹ It also proposed indexing HELP debt at the ten-year bond rate, rather than the CPI, but this was not legislated.⁴⁰

A proposal to recover student loan debt from those residing overseas was included in the 2015–16 Budget.⁴¹ This was legislated in 2015, and requires those with a study or training loan who are intending to live and work overseas for more than six months in any 12 months to notify the Australian Taxation Office within seven days of leaving Australia.⁴² They are then required to lodge a worldwide income (or non-income) advice each tax year.⁴³

Further changes to repayment and loan arrangements were introduced in the Higher Education Support Legislation Amendment (Student Loan Sustainability) Act 2018, including:

• significant changes to the repayment rates and income thresholds, reducing the minimum income threshold for compulsory repayments from $51,956 in the 2018–19 income year to $45,880 for 2019–20 and raising the maximum repayment rate from 8 to 10 per cent

• indexing the repayment income thresholds to the CPI rather than Average Weekly Earnings (AWE) and

• introducing a new HELP loan limit, which covered all loan types, not just FEE-HELP.⁴⁴

Job Ready Graduates Package

In June 2020, the Government announced its Job Ready Graduates Package, the major component of which was a significant reshaping of the funding for CSPs.⁴⁵ The purpose of this change was to ‘address the misalignment between the cost of teaching a degree and the revenue that a university receives to teach it’ and also ‘incentivise students to make more job-relevant choices, that lead to more job-ready graduates, by reducing the student contribution in areas of expected employment growth and demand.’⁴⁶ The HELP-related elements of the Package were enacted in October 2020.⁴⁷

As can be seen in Appendix A this potentially has a considerable impact on HECS-HELP debt for some students. For example, a student studying humanities or social science courses in 2020 was liable for a student contribution of $6,684 pa, whereas someone commencing the same courses in 2021 has a student contribution of $14,500 pa. On the other hand, someone studying agriculture or mathematics had a contribution of $9,527 pa in 2020, which is reduced to $3,950 pa in 2021. Continuing students will pay the lesser of the amount their course is liable for in 2021 and the indexed 2020 levels. Thus, for example, a student continuing in communications qualification can only be charged $6,804 pa in 2021, while a new student in the same course could pay $14,500 pa.⁴⁸

Other elements of the Package also had an impact on HELP arrangements. The FEE-HELP loan fee was reduced from 25 per cent to 20 per cent, and student protection requirements already imposed on non-university FEE-HELP providers were extended to CSP providers.⁴⁹ In addition, amendments introduced during the passage of the legislation saw the reintroduction of the 10 per cent discount for upfront payment of HECS-HELP contributions, and of the restriction of entitlement to a CSP to seven years full-time study (or equivalent).⁵⁰

In addition, students who do not successfully complete 50 per cent or more of the units in a course of study they are enrolled in, after the completion of at least eight units (one year full-time) in a bachelor or above qualification, or four units in a sub-bachelor degree, are ineligible to continue in a CSP (and hence access a HECS-HELP loan) in that course, unless exceptional circumstances apply.⁵¹

3 Key statistics

Table 1 below shows the number of loans provided under each element of the HELP scheme, since it commenced in 2005. There has been substantial growth across all loan types throughout the period since their inception. In particular, VET FEE-HELP saw a dramatic increase in loan numbers after a slow uptake, with less than 3,500 loans provided in 2009 (a year after the scheme’s introduction) growing to over 196,000 loans in 2015, the year before the scheme was abolished.

Table 1: Number of HELP and VET Student loans by type of loan, 2005 to 2019

Year

No. of CSPs for which HECS-HELP loans paid

No. of places for which FEE-HELP loans paid

OS-HELP

VET FEE-HELP

SA-HELP

VET Student Loans

2005

(a)344 509

(b)n.a.

2006

(a)356 960

1 916

2007

(a)371 654

2 454

2008

(a)385 598

2 626

(b)n. a.

2009

368 679

55 369

2 651

3 498

2010

395 177

64 766

4 086

20 108

2011

414 709

70 849

5 035

28 570

2012

450 314

75 388

5 675

37 700

307 339

2013

484 681

76 106

6 373

65 838

414 197

2014

507 629

76 613

10 986

131 344

444 344

2015

520 606

77 850

12 818

196 108

463 872

2016

601 054

77 778

14 861

(b)n.a.

483 803

2017(c)

824 265

138 550

15 654

508 148

42 220

2018

826 572

136 869

16 392

514 920

57 874

2019

827 877

139 439

16 661

534 132

53 892

Notes:

(a) Includes FEE-HELP loans. HECS-HELP and FEE-HELP numbers were not separately reported until 2009.

(b) Although the OS-HELP scheme operated in 2005, and VET FEE-HELP operated in 2008 and 2016, information about the number of loans under these schemes for these years is not available.

(c) From 2017, the number reported for HELP loans is the number of students who received these loans, not the number of places.

Source: 2005–2016: Relevant education department (names vary) annual reports; 2017–2019: Department of Education, Skills and Training (DESE), ‘Student data’, Section 5 Liability status categories and DESE, VSL Annual statistical reports.

Table 2 shows the total number and amount of HELP debts outstanding in each financial year since HELP was introduced. Both the number of individuals with HELP debts and the debt balance peaked in 2018–19. The slight decrease in 2019–20 appears to be due to the separation of VET Student Loan debt from HELP debt from 1 July 2019, meaning these debts are no longer included in the totals, but are still included in the data for prior years.

While the number of outstanding debts has more than doubled over the period, the total amount of debt outstanding has increased five-fold, with the average outstanding debt increasing from $10,400 to $23,300.

Table 2: Number of individuals with HELP debt and the total HELP debt balance, 2005–06 to 2019–20(a)

Year

Number of individuals

Total balance ($m)

2005–06

1 188 337

12 399

2006–07

1 248 637

14 011

2007–08

1 314 370

15 807

2008–09

1 371 914

17 821

2009–10

1 461 772

19 905

2010–11

1 567 100

22 573

2011–12

1 680 700

25 531

2012–13

1 823 288

28 986

2013–14

1 997 973

33 816

2014–15

2 223 041

40 182

2015–16

2 468 939

47 887

2016–17

2 659 057

53 988

2017–18

2 872 603

61 924

2018–19

2 972 032

66 647

2019–20

2 851 725

66 387

(a) Includes HECS-HELP, FEE-HELP, OS-HELP, SA-HELP and VET FEE-HELP debts, but not debts from other student income-contingent loans such as VET Student Loans, Trade Support Loans and Student Start-up Loans.

Source: Australian Taxation Office (ATO), Higher Education Loan Program, Table 5.

As HELP debt is extinguished on death, and some debtors disappear from the Australian tax system, not all outstanding debt is repaid. Appendix C provides details on the number and amount of HELP debts that have been written off. Since 1989, some 18,000 debts have been written off due to death, with total debt written off being nearly $160 million. It is estimated that some 14.7 per cent of HELP loans issued in 2020–21 will not be repaid.⁵²

Appendix C also shows the average time taken to make the first compulsory repayment of HELP debt, and the average time to repay the debt in full. Since 2005–06, the average time taken to repay HELP debt has increased from 7.3 years to 9.3 years, reflecting the increasing size of debts.

Chronology of changes to the Higher Education Loan Program

Milestones(a)

Details

Source documents

January 1989

Higher Education Contributions Scheme (HECS) introduced. Key features included:

• contribution level of $1,800 per annum (pa) indexed by the Higher Education Operations Grant (HEOG) index which was based on the changes in costs incurred by institutions

• postgraduate research scholarship holders exempt

• 15.0% discount for up-front payment of contributions

• repayment threshold of $22,000 at a rate of 1.0% of income, rising to 3.0% for incomes above $35,000

• debts and repayment thresholds indexed by the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and

• debt written off at death.

Higher Education Funding Act 1988

July 1990

Repayment rates increased from 1.0%, 2.0% and 3.0% to 2.0%, 3.0% and 4.0%.

Measures introduced to facilitate the reduction and remission of HECS debts in certain circumstances.

Higher Education Funding Amendment Act (No. 2) 1990

January 1992

HECS contribution rate increased from $1,800 pa to $2,250 pa which was $144 higher than the specified indexation increase.

Higher Education Funding Amendment Act (No. 2) 1991

January 1993

Discount for up-front payments increased from 15.0% to 25.0%.

New Zealand citizens resident continuously in Australia for less than two years, or studying outside Australia, and permanent residents whose term address was overseas, required to pay HECS up-front. Such students still entitled to the 25.0% reduction for up-front payments.

Higher Education Funding Amendment Act (No. 2) 1992

January 1994

Repayment rates increased from 2.0%, 3.0% and 4.0% to 3.0%, 4.0% and 5.0%.

Repayment threshold rebased to $26,402 to reflect increases in Average Weekly Earnings (AWE), which had risen faster than the CPI.

Pay-as-you-earn (now pay-as-you-go (PAYG)) tax arrangements introduced for loan repayments, rather than a single large repayment bill at the end of the tax year.

HECS exemptions for postgraduate research scholarship holders integrated into Australian Postgraduate Awards.

Open Learning Deferred Payment Scheme (OLDPS) introduced, extending HECS arrangements to Open Learning students.

Higher Education Funding Legislation Amendment Act 1993

January 1996

Voluntary repayment rate of 2.0% at income level of $20,000 introduced, which attracted a discount of 10.0% on the total HECS debt.

Discount of 15.0% on voluntary lump sum repayments of $500 or more introduced.

Non-citizens (including New Zealanders) who became permanent residents and commenced their courses after 1 January 1996 were required to pay their HECS up-front, and the 25.0% discount was removed for these cases.

Higher Education Funding Amendment Act (No. 2) 1995

July 1996

Repayment rates of 3.5%, 4.5%, 5.5% and 6.0% introduced in addition to the existing 3.0%, 4.0% and 5.0% rates.

Higher Education Funding Amendment Act (No. 2) 1995

January 1997

Three differential contribution rates were introduced for different course funding clusters (fields of study bands), based on the cost of tuition and expected earning capacity. Students who commenced prior to 1997 remained under the previous arrangements.

Compulsory repayment income thresholds lowered from $28,494 for the 1996–97 tax year to $20,700 for 1997–98.

Voluntary 2.0% repayment option removed.

Repayment exemption introduced for those with incomes low enough to qualify for a full or partial Medicare Levy exemption.

Merit-based equity scholarships introduced, providing 1,000 undergraduate students with an exemption from paying HECS.

Higher Education Legislation Amendment Act 1996

January 1998

25.0% discount for partial up-front payments of $500 or more introduced.

Administrative processes related to the remission of HECS debts streamlined.

Higher Education Funding Amendment Act (No. 1) 1997

July 1999

HECS repayment income amended to include total reportable fringe benefits.

A New Tax System (Fringe Benefits Reporting) Act 1999

January 2000

Merit-based equity scholarships abolished with no new awards, although existing recipients continued to receive HECS exemption.

Budget paper No. 2: Budget Measures: 1999–2000

January 2002

Postgraduate Education Loans Scheme (PELS) introduced, providing HECS-style loans for postgraduate coursework study.

Provision made for the Minister to determine a maximum permitted HECS debt level.

Innovation and Education Legislation Amendment Act (No. 2) 2001

July 2001

Legislation amended to ensure that a person’s HECS debt was not discharged on bankruptcy.

Higher Education Funding Amendment Act 2001

April 2002

Bridging for Overseas-Trained Professionals Loan Scheme (BORPLS) introduced, providing HECS-style loans for permanent resident professionals who were required to undertake bridging courses to have their qualifications recognised.

Higher Education Legislation Amendment Act (No. 1) 2002

October 2002

Eligibility for PELS extended to students attending a number of private institutions, including Bond University.

Higher Education Funding Amendment Act 2002

January 2005

Additional loans provided under an expanded HELP scheme:

• HECS became HECS-HELP

• FEE-HELP for full fee-paying students introduced (replacing PELS, OLDPS and BORPLS), with a total loan limit of $50,000 and

• OS-HELP for students studying overseas for one or two semesters introduced.

Loan fee of 20.0% applied to FEE-HELP loans for undergraduate study, and to OS-HELP loans.

Concept of Commonwealth Supported Places (CSPs) introduced.

Student Learning Entitlement (SLE) introduced, limiting access to CSPs to seven years of full-time or equivalent study.

Institutions able to determine their own student contribution levels within ranges set by the Government. For each of the existing course bands the range was set from $0 to 30.0% higher than the existing contribution level.

A new course band of National Priorities for teaching and nursing courses was introduced. The contribution range for this band was set from $0 to the existing field of study Band 1 level.

Repayment income threshold raised from $25,347 for the 2003–04 tax year to $35,000 for 2004–05.

Lowest two repayment rates removed—the lowest repayment rate became 4.0%.

Maximum repayment rate of 8.0% introduced for those with incomes of $65,000 or more.

Definition of repayment income extended to include exempt foreign income.

Discount for up-front payment of contributions reduced from25.0% to 20.0%.

Discount for voluntary repayments reduced from 15.0% to 10.0%.

Higher Education Support Act 2003 (HESA)

Higher Education Support (Transitional Provisions and Consequential Amendments) Act 2003

January 2005

HESA amended to ensure Open Learning Australia (OLA) was subject to the necessary quality and accountability provisions so that the FEE-HELP scheme could be appropriately administered for OLA students.

Higher Education Legislation Amendment Act (No. 2) 2004

May 2005

SLE and FEE-HELP balances automatically re-credited when a private provider unable to deliver higher education units.

Higher Education Legislation Amendment (2005 Measures No. 1) Act 2005

January 2007

FEE-HELP total loan limit increased from $50,000 to $80,000 ($100,000 for courses in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science).

Higher Education Legislation Amendment (2006 Budget and Other Measures) Act 2006

May 2007

Eligibility for OS-HELP clarified, including that the student could apply while overseas, but could not apply if they had returned to Australia.

Higher Education Legislation Amendment (2007 Measures No. 1) Act 2007

January 2008

VET-FEE HELP introduced for students studying higher level vocational education and training courses. Arrangements mirrored those for FEE-HELP, including a loan fee of 20.0%.

Higher Education Support Amendment (Extending FEE-HELP for VET Diploma, Advanced Diploma, Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Courses) Act 2007

January 2008

Business and administration courses were moved from Band 2 to Band 3, increasing maximum student contribution levels for HECS-HELP from $7,118 in 2007 to $8,499 in 2008.

Higher Education Legislation Amendment (2007 Budget Measures) Act 2007

January 2009

HECS student contributions reduced for maths and science students.

HECS-HELP benefit introduced. The benefit halved the HECS repayments for five years for maths, science and early childhood education graduates who worked as teachers or in other occupations relevant to their qualifications. Early childhood education graduates received additional benefit if they worked in designated locations.

Higher Education Support Amendment (2008 Budget Measures) Act 2008

July 2009

Some provisions regarding VET FEE-HELP were moved to the VET FEE-HELP Guidelines to increase flexibility; in particular, extending VET FEE-HELP to cover government-funded Diploma and Advanced Diploma courses.

Higher Education Support Amendment (VET FEE-HELP and Tertiary Admission Centres) Act 2009

July 2009

HELP repayment income definition revised to exclude net investment losses as a deduction.

Tax Laws Amendment (2009 Measures No. 1) Act 2009

July 2009

HECS-HELP benefit extended to education and nursing graduates who worked in relevant occupations.

HECS-HELP Benefit Guidelines No. 1, 3 March 2010.

January 2010

Changes to maximum student contribution levels and course funding clusters.

Nursing and education removed from the National Priorities Band, meaning maximum student contributions under HECS-HELP increased from $4,162 in 2009 to $5,310 in 2010.

Loan fee for OS-HELP abolished.

Higher Education Support Amendment (2009 Budget Measures) Act 2009

January 2011

Indexation of HECS-HELP contribution levels, FEE-HELP limits and OS-HELP maximum loan amounts changed from the HEOG index to a combination of the CPI and the movement in the Professional, Scientific and Technical Services Labour Price Index.

Higher Education Support Amendment (Indexation) Act 2010

January 2011

FEE-HELP loan fee for undergraduate study increased from 20.0% to 25.0%, but VET FEE-HELP loan fee remained at 20.0%.

Higher Education Support Amendment (FEE-HELP Loan Fee) Act 2010

January 2012

SA-HELP introduced to assist students to pay student services and amenities fees.

Higher Education Legislation Amendment (Student Services and Amenities) Act 2011

January 2012

Discount for up-front payment of contributions reduced from 20.0% to 10.0%.

Discount for voluntary repayments reduced from 10.0% to 5.0%.

Higher Education Support Amendment Act (No. 2) 2011

January 2012

SLE limit removed, meaning students could continue to access CSPs for more than seven years full-time study or equivalent.

Higher Education Support Amendment (Demand Driven Funding System and Other Measures) Act 2011

May 2012

Changes to the specified locations for HECS-HELP benefit for early childhood education graduates working as preschool or childcare teachers.

HECS-HELP Benefit Guidelines No. 1: Amendment No. 1

January 2013

The National Priority Band was discontinued and HECS-HELP student contributions for maths and science courses increased from $4,520 in 2012 to $8,363 in 2013.

Higher Education Support Amendment (Student Contribution Amounts and Other Measures) Act 2012

June 2013

Higher OS-HELP loans made available to students studying in Asia.

Higher Education Support Amendment (Asian Century) Act 2013

December 2015

Discounts for up-front payment of contributions and voluntary repayment of debt removed.

Labor 2013–14 Budget Savings (Measures No. 2) Act 2015

January 2016

New Zealand citizens who had come to Australia as minors and resided in Australia for most of the previous ten years were given access to HECS-HELP.

Higher Education Legislation Amendment (Miscellaneous Measures) Act 2015

January 2016

Non-residents for tax purposes with a HELP debt required to repay their debt at same income levels and rates as residents.

Education Legislation Amendment (Overseas Debt Recovery) Act 2015

Student Loans (Overseas Debtors Repayment Levy) Act 2015

January 2016

Additional requirements imposed on providers in relation to VET FEE-HELP loans.

Higher Education Support Amendment (VET FEE-HELP Reform) Act 2015

January 2017

VET Student Loans (VSLs) replaced VET FEE-HELP.

VET Student Loans Act 2016

VET Student Loans (Consequential Amendments and Transitional Provisions) Act 2016

July 2017

HECS-HELP benefit abolished.

Budget Savings (Omnibus) Act 2016

January 2018

Indexation of HECS-HELP contribution levels, FEE-HELP limits and OS-HELP and SA-HELP maximum loan amounts changed to CPI only.

Budget Savings (Omnibus) Act 2016

January 2018

Additional requirements imposed on non-university FEE-HELP providers consistent with those for VSL providers.

Students no longer eligible for FEE-HELP if they have not successfully completed 50% or more of the units they have enrolled in, unless special circumstances apply.

Education Legislation Amendment (Provider Integrity and Other Measures) Act 2017

July 2018

Repayment threshold reduced from $55,874 for the 2017–18 tax year to $51,596 for 2018–19, and a new repayment rate of 2.0% introduced.

Budget Savings (Omnibus) Act 2016

January 2019

New discretionary powers for the Secretary to remit VET FEE-HELP debts in cases of inappropriate conduct by VET providers introduced.

Higher Education Support Amendment (VET FEE HELP Student Protection) Act 2018

July 2019

Repayment threshold further reduced to $45,880, with range of new repayment rates introduced from 1.0% to 10%.

Repayment threshold indexed to the CPI.

FEE-HELP loan fee removed for Table B providers.

Higher Education Support Legislation Amendment (Student Loan Sustainability) Act 2018

July 2019

VSL debts separated from HELP debt.

Education and Other Legislation Amendment (VET Student Loan Debt Separation) Act 2018

January 2020

Renewable HELP loan limit introduced of $150,000 for those studying medicine, dentistry or veterinary science, and $104,440 otherwise. These limits indexed to the CPI.

Higher Education Support Legislation Amendment (Student Loan Sustainability) Act 2018

January 2020

New charges introduced for higher education providers whose students access HELP.

Higher Education Support Amendment (Cost Recovery) Act 2019

Higher Education Support (Charges) Act 2019

January 2020

Aviation courses added to the group of courses with a higher HELP loan limit.

Provisions introduced to encourage teachers (including pre-school teachers) to work in schools in very remote areas through reductions in HELP debt.

Education Legislation Amendment (2019 Measures No. 1) Act 2019

April 2020

FEE-HELP and VSL loan fees suspended for courses with a census date between 1 April 2020 and 30 September 2020 as part of the response to COVID 19.

Education Legislation Amendment (2020 Measures No. 1) Act 2020

VET Student Loans Amendment Rules (No. 1) 2020

January 2021

Student contributions for CSPs significantly altered. Subject areas redistributed across four bands rather than three, with maximum contribution rates ranging from $3,950 pa to $14,500 pa. Continuing students to pay the lesser of the new rate and the indexed former rate for their course.

Additional requirements imposed on providers in relation to CSPs, consistent with those already imposed on non-university FEE-HELP providers.

Upfront payment of $500 or more of student contributions for CSPs eligible for HECS-HELP discount of 10%.

Higher Education Support Amendment (Job-Ready Graduates and Supporting Regional and Remote Students) Act 2020

July 2021

FEE-HELP loan fee reduced from 25% to 20%

Higher Education Support Amendment (Job-Ready Graduates and Supporting Regional and Remote Students) Act 2020

January 2022

Students no longer eligible for HECS-HELP if they have not successfully completed 50% or more of the units they have enrolled in, unless special circumstances apply.

SLE of seven years full-time or equivalent study reintroduced.

Higher Education Support Amendment (Job-Ready Graduates and Supporting Regional and Remote Students) Act 2020

January 2022

Deadline for provider reporting of VET FEE-HELP liabilities.

VET Student Payment Arrangements (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act 2021

(a) Dates reflect implementation date.

4 Appendices

Appendix A: HECS-HELP contribution rates, 1989 to 2021

HECS contributions for students who commenced before 1 January 1997

Year

$ pa

1989

1 800

1990

1 882

1991

1 993

1992

2 250

1993

2 328

1994

2 355

1995

2 409

1996

2 442

1997

2 478

1998

2 520

1999

2 560

2000

2 600

2001

2 644

2002

2 702

2003

2 764

2004

2 830

Source: Deloitte Access Economics, The impact of changes to student contribution levels and repayment thresholds on the demand for higher education, report prepared for the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR), DEEWR, August 2011, p. 10.

Maximum HECS-HELP contributions for students who commenced from 1 January 1997

Year

National priorities(a)

Band 1
($ pa)⁽b)

Band 2
($ pa)⁽c)

Band 3
($ pa)⁽d)

1997

3 300

4 700

5 500

1998

3 356

4 779

5 593

1999

3 409

4 855

5 682

2000

3 463

4 932

5 772

2001

3 521

5 015

5 870

2002

3 598

5 125

5 999

2003

3 680

5 242

6 136

2004

3 768

5 367

6 283

2005

3 847

4 808

6 849

8 018

2006

3 920

4 899

6 979

8 170

2007

3 998

4 996

7 118

8 333

2008

4 077

5 095

7 260

8 499

2009

4 162

5 201

7 412

8 677

2010

4 249

5 310

7 567

8 859

2011

4 355

5 442

7 756

9 080

2012

4 520

5 648

8 050

9 425

2013

5 868

8 363

9 792

2014

6 044

8 613

10 085

2015

6 152

8 768

10 266

2016

6 256

8 917

10 440

2017

6 349

9 050

10 596

2018

6 444

9 185

10 754

2019

6 566

9 359

10 958

2020

6 684

9 527

11 155

Band 1

($ pa)⁽e)

Band 2

($ pa)⁽f)

Band 3

($ pa)⁽g)

Band 4

($ pa)⁽h)

2021⁽i⁾

3 950

7 950

11 300

14 500

Notes:

(a) National priorities: 2005 to 2009— education and nursing; 2009 to 2012 - mathematics, statistics and science.

(b) Band 1: arts and humanities; justice, legal studies; social science and behavioural science; visual and performing arts; and until 2005 and from 2010: education and nursing.

(c) Band 2: other health sciences; agriculture and renewable resources; built environment and architecture; engineering and processing; and until 2008: business and economics courses; and until 2009 and from 2013: mathematics, statistics and science.

(d) Band 3: law; medicine and medical science; dentistry and dental services; veterinary science; and from 2008: business and economics.

(e) Band 1: agriculture, English, mathematics, education, clinical psychology, Indigenous and foreign languages, nursing, statistics.

(f) Band 2: other health, built environment, computing, engineering, surveying, science, environmental studies, pathology, visual and performing arts, professional pathway psychology, professional pathway social work.

(g) Band 3: dentistry, medicine, veterinary science

(h) Band 4: law, accounting, administration, economics, commerce, communications, society and culture.

(i) Continuing students (those who commenced before 1 January 2021), studying units in disciplines with increased student contribution amounts, continue paying the same amount as they would have for any units that would otherwise have an increased student contribution. For example, a continuing student in a communications course would only pay $6,804 rather than $14,500.

Sources: Deloitte Access Economics, The impact of changes to student contribution levels and repayment thresholds on the demand for higher education, report prepared for the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR), DEEWR, August 2011, p. 10 (to 2011); relevant Australian Government archived StudyAssist websites (for 2012 to 2020); Australian Government, ‘Student contribution amounts’, StudyAssist website.

Appendix B: Average Weekly Earnings (AWOTE), HELP repayment rates and thresholds: 1988–89 to 2020–21

1988–89 to 2003–04

Income year

AWOTE
($ pa)⁽a⁾

Repayment rate and repayment threshold ($ pa)⁽b)

Nil

1%

2%

3%

3.5%

4%

4.5%

5%

5.5%

6%

1988–89⁽c⁾

26 057

21 999

24 999

34 999

35 000+

1989–90

27 318

23 582

26 798

37 518

37 519+

1990–91

29 026

25 468

28 941

40 519

40 520+

1991–92

30 319

27 097

30 793

43 112

43 113+

1992–93

30 800

27 747

31 532

44 146

44 147+

1993–94

31 764

26 402

30 004

42 005

42 006+

1994–95

33 236

26 852

30 516

42 722

42 723+

1995–96

34 710

⁽d⁾19 999

27 674

31 449

44 029

44 030+

1996–97⁽e⁾

35 942

(d⁾20 593

28 494

30 049

32 381

37 563

43 335

47 718

51 293

51 294

1997–98⁽e⁾

37 344

20 700

21 830

23 524

27 288

32 934

34 665

37 262

37 263

1998–99⁽e⁾

38 922

21 333

22 498

24 244

28 123

33 942

35 726

38 402

38 403

1999–00(f⁾

40 037

21 983

23 183

24 982

28 980

34 976

36 814

39 572

39 573

2000–01⁽f⁾

42 039

22 345

23 565

25 393

29 456

35 551

37 420

40 223

40 224

2001–02⁽f⁾

44 270

23 241

24 510

26 412

30 638

36 977

38 921

41 837

41 838

2002–03⁽f⁾

46 667

24 364

25 694

27 688

32 118

38 763

40 801

43 858

43 859

2003–04⁽f⁾

48 571

25 347

26 731

28 805

33 414

40 328

42 447

45 628

45 629

2004–05 to 2018–19

Income year

AWOTE

($ pa)⁽a⁾

Repayment rate and repayment threshold ($ pa)⁽b)

Nil

2%

4%

4.5%

5%

5.5%

6%

6.5%

7%

7.5%

8%

2004–05(f⁾

50 929

35 000

38 987

42 972

45 232

48 621

52 657

55 429

60 971

64 999

65 000

2005–06⁽g⁾

52 978

36 184

40 306

44 427

46 762

50 266

54 439

57 304

63 062

67 199

67 200

2006–07⁽g⁾

55 143

38 148

42 494

46 838

49 300

52 994

57 394

60 414

66 485

70 846

70 847

2007–08⁽g⁾

57 673

39 824

44 360

48 896

51 466

55 322

59 915

63 068

69 405

73 959

73 960

2008–09⁽g⁾

60 991

41 598

46 333

51 070

53 754

57 782

62 579

65 873

72 492

77 247

77 248

2009–10⁽h⁾

64 399

43 151

48 066

52 980

55 764

59 943

64 919

68 336

75 203

80 136

80 137

2010–11⁽h⁾

67 077

44 911

50 028

55 143

58 041

62 390

67 750

71 126

78 273

83 407

83 408

2011–12⁽h⁾

69 662

47 195

52 572

57 947

60 993

65 563

71 006

74 743

82 253

87 649

87 650

2012–13(h⁾

73 239

49 095

54 688

60 279

63 448

68 202

73 864

77 751

85 564

91 177

91 178

2013–14(h⁾

75 169

51 308

57 173

62 997

66 308

71 277

77 194

81 256

89 421

95 287

95 288

2014–15(h⁾

76 963

53 345

59 421

65 497

68 939

74 105

80 257

84 481

92 970

99 069

99 070

2015–16(h⁾

78 429

54 125

60 292

66 456

69 949

75 190

81 432

85 718

94 331

100 519

100 520

2016–17(h⁾

79 992

54 868

61 119

67 368

70 909

76 222

82 550

86 894

95 626

101 899

101 900

2017–18⁽h⁾

82 027

55 873

62 238

68 602

72 207

77 618

84 062

88 486

97 377

103 765

103 766

2018–19⁽h⁾

84 248

51 956

57 729

64 306

70 881

74 607

80 197

86 855

91 425

100 613

107 213

107 214

2019–20 to 2020–21

Income year

2019–20(h)

2020–21(h)

AWOTE ($ pa)⁽a⁾

87 680

Repayment rate

Repayment threshold ($ pa)⁽b)

Nil

45 880

46 619

1.0%

52 973

53 826

2.0%

56 151

57 055

2.5%

59 521

60 479

3.0%

63 092

64 108

3.5%

66 877

67 954

4.0%

70 890

72 031

4.5%

75 144

76 354

5.0%

79 652

80 935

5.5%

84 432

85 792

6.0%

89 498

90 939

6.5%

94 868

96 396

7.0%

100 560

102 179

7.5%

106 593

108 309

8.0%

112 989

114 707

8.5%

119 769

121 698

9.0%

126 955

128 999

9.5%

134 572

136 739

10.0%

134 573

136 740

Notes:

(a) Seasonally adjusted average weekly ordinary time earnings for adults working full time (calculated as average weekly ordinary time earnings for the two quarterly survey estimates multiplied by 52 weeks).

(b) Highest income level at which rate is payable, except for top repayment rate, which commences at income level specified.

(c) As HECS was only introduced on 1 January 1989, repayment rates for 1988–89 were at half the level of later years (that is, 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%).

(d) Repayment at 2% rate was voluntary.

(e) Taxable income plus net rental losses.

(f) As per (e) plus total reportable fringe benefits amounts.

(g) As per (f) plus exempt foreign employment income.

(h) As per (g) plus any total investment loss (which includes net rental losses), and reportable super contributions.

Sources: Australian Taxation Office (ATO), ‘Study and training loan repayment thresholds and rates’, ATO website. Earlier years sourced from ATO websites now archived at National Library of Australia, Australian Government web archive; and Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Average weekly earnings, Australia, May 2020, ABS, Canberra, 13 August 2020, Table 2.

Appendix C: HELP debts written off and average repayment periods, 2005–06 to 2019-20

Year

Debts written off due to death (no.) since 1989

Value of debts written off ($) since 1989

Average value of debts written off since 1989(a)

Average time to make first compulsory repayment (years)

Average time to repay debt in full (years)

2005–06

7 087

37 294 112

5 262

6.8

7.3

2006–07

7 744

42 415 456

5 477

6.9

7.5

2007–08

8 402

47 885 789

5 699

5.0

7.6

2008–09

9 174

54 842 974

5 978

5.0

7.7

2009–10

9 518

58 969 004

6 196

5.1

7.9

2010–11

9 581

58 405 139

6 096

5.1

8.1

2011–12

9 581

58 405 139

6 096

5.1

8.2

2012–13

11 241

79 126 088

7 039

5.1

8.4

2013–14

11 767

83 542 818

7 100

5.2

8.5

2014–15

12 849

95 283 709

7 416

5.2

8.7

2015–16

12 852

95 364 906

7 420

5.2

8.8

2016–17

12 859

95 497 814

7 427

5.2

8.9

2017–18

13 387

102 097 662

7 627

5.3

9.1

2018–19

16 218

138 701 424

8 552

5.4

9.2

2019–20

17 875

159 810 005

8 940

5.5

9.3

Note: (a) Some debts may also have been written off where debtors are unable to be traced through the taxation system.

Source: ATO, Higher Education Loan Program, Tables 1, 2 and 3.

5 List of acronyms

AWE

Average weekly earnings

AWOTE

Average weekly ordinary time earnings

BORPLS

Bridging for Overseas-Trained Professionals Loan Scheme

CPI

Consumer Price Index

CSP

Commonwealth Supported Place

HECS

Higher Education Contribution Scheme

HELP

Higher Education Loan Program

HEOG

Higher Education Operating Grant

HESA

Higher Education Support Act 2003

OLA

Open Learning Australia

OLDPS

Open Learning Deferred Payment Scheme

PAYG

Pay-as-you-go

PELS

Postgraduate Education Loans Scheme

pa

SLE

Per annum

Student Learning Entitlement

VET

Vocational education and training

VSL

VET Student Loans

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Notes

[←1]

.    D Daniels, Student income support: a chronology, Research paper series, 2017-18, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, 2017.

[←2]

.    J Dawkins (Minister for Employment, Education and Training), ‘Government proposes new higher education system’, media release, 9 December 1987.

[←3]

.    Committee on Higher Education Funding (Wran Committee), Report of the Committee on Higher Education Funding, Department of Employment, Education and Training, [Canberra], April 1988, p. v.

[←4]

.    Ibid.

[←5]

.    Ibid., p. vii.

[←6]

.    Ibid., pp. 64–5.

[←7]

.    Ibid., p. 62.

[←8]

.    Ibid., p. 80.

[←9]

.    J Dawkins, ‘Second reading speech: Higher Education Funding Bill 1988’, House of Representatives, Debates.

[←10]

.    Ibid.

[←11]

.    Higher Education Funding Act 1988, Section 77.

[←12]

.    P Costello (Treasurer), Budget speech 2003–04, p. 6.

[←13]

. For more details see: K Jackson, Higher Education Support Bill 2003, Bills digest, 56, 2003–04, Department of the Parliamentary Library, Canberra, 2003.

[←14]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2007–08, p. 120.

[←15]

.    C Dow and C Kempner, Higher Education Legislation Amendment (Student Services and Amenities, and Other Measures) Bill 2009, Bills digest, 107, 2008–09, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, 2009.

[←16]

.    J Griffiths, VET Student Loans Bill 2016 [and] VET Student Loans (Charges) Bill 2016 [and] VET Student Loans (Consequential Amendments and Transitional Provisions) Bill 2016, Bills digest, 41, 2016–17, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, 2016.

[←17]

.    For details see: Parliament of Australia, ‘Higher Education Support Bill 2003 homepage’, Australian Parliament website.

[←18]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2009–10, p. 152 (OS-HELP loan fee abolition), and W Swan (Treasurer) and L Tanner, Mid-year economic and fiscal outlook 2009–10, p. 173 (FEE-HELP loan fee increase).

[←19]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2006–07, p. 158.

[←20]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2007–08, p. 120.

[←21]

.    K Jackson, op. cit., p. 3.

[←22]

.    Higher Education Support Act 2003, Part 3–1— Student Learning Entitlement.

[←23]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2009–10, p. 144.

[←24]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2011–12, p. 163, and Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2013–14, p. 216.

[←25]

.    K Jackson, op. cit., p. 2.

[←26]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2008–09, p. 133.

[←27]

.    Ibid., p. 134.

[←28]

.    Ibid.

[←29]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2009–10, pp. 149-50.

[←30]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2012–13, p.227, and Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2014–15, p.77.

[←31]

.    H Ferguson, S Clark and J Haughton, Education Legislation Amendment (2019 Measures No. 1) Bill 2019, Bills digest, 51, 2019–20, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, December 2019, pp. 17–20.

[←32]

.    Ibid.

[←33]

.    Ibid., p. 19.

[←34]

.    J Griffiths, VET Student Loans Bill 2016 [and] VET Student Loans (Charges) Bill 2016 [and] VET Student Loans (Consequential Amendments and Transitional Provisions) Bill 2016, Bills digest, 41, 2016–17, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, November 2016, pp. 11–12.

[←35]

.    Ibid., pp. 13–15.

[←36]

.    For details of this legislation, see J Griffiths, op. cit.

[←37]

.    For more detail, see H Ferguson, VET Student Payment Arrangements (Miscellaneous Amendments) Bill 2020, Bills digest, 29, 2020–21, November 2020.

[←38]

.    For more detail, see H Ferguson, Education and Other Legislation Amendment (VET Student Loan Debt Separation) Bill 2018 [and] Student Loans (Overseas Debtors Repayment Levy) Amendment Bill 2018, Bills digest, 17, 2018–19, August 2018.

[←39]

. Australian Government, ‘Part 2: expense measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2014–15, p. 77; and Budget Savings (Omnibus) Act 2016.

[←40]

.    Ibid., p. 78.

[←41]

.    Australian Government, ‘Part 1. Revenue measures’, Budget measures: budget paper no. 2: 2015–16, p. 9.

[←42]

.    Australian Taxation Office (ATO), ‘Overseas obligations when repaying loans’, ATO website.

[←43]

.    Ibid.

[←44]

.    For more detail, see H Ferguson, Higher Education Support Legislation Amendment (Student Loan Sustainability) Bill 2018, Bills digest, 96, 2017–18, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, March 2018.

[←45]

.    D Tehan, Job-ready graduates, speech, 19 June 2020.

[←46]

.    Ibid., p. 3.

[←47]

.    Higher Education Support Amendment (Job-Ready Graduates and Supporting Regional and Remote Students) Act 2020

[←48]

.    Australian Government, ‘Student contribution amounts’, StudyAssist website.

[←49]

.    Australian Government, ‘Job-ready Graduate Package—higher education reforms’, StudyAssist website.

[←50]

.    Higher Education Support Amendment (Job-Ready Graduates and Supporting Regional and Remote Students) Act 2020, Schedules 4A and 4B.

[←51]

.    H Ferguson, Higher Education Support Amendment (Job-Ready Graduates and Supporting Regional and Remote Students) Bill 2020, Bills digest, 12, 2020–21, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, October 2020, p. 50.

[←52]

.    Australian Government, Portfolio budget statements 2020–21: budget related paper no. 1.4: Education, Skills and Employment Portfolio, p. 55.